Abstract
Objectives
This study evaluates ultra-marathon runners’ use of goal-setting, self-talk, and imagery as strategies to help them through the challenge of long-distance running.
Methods
In stage one, thirty-one self-professed non-runners were recruited and received motivational interviewing (MI) in a group setting, examining their motivation to get healthy. In stage two, five months later, participants were asked if they would consider running an ultra-marathon, and fifteen (M age=39.47, SD=5.84) agreed. At this point participants were randomly split into an MI or Functional Imagery Training (FIT) group. FIT teaches participants how to master goal centred imagery by controlling attention and elaboration. Groups received similar contact hours and completed four measures that assess grit, resilience, self-efficacy, and imagery ability at baseline and after the race.
Results
We found no significant differences between measures for finishers and non-finishers or between groups or over time. However, the likelihood of completing the ultra-marathon was five times as likely in the FIT group, than in MI (RR=5.25). Grit and resilience scores were strongly correlated. By receiving FIT, there was a significant association (p=0.04) to complete the ultra-marathon.
Conclusions
FIT is a relatively cost-effective method to increase exercise adherence through multi-sensory elaboration of goal setting and overcoming barriers or challenges.
References
Acevedo, E. O., Dzewaltowski, D. A., Gill, D. L., & Noble, J. M. (1992). Cognitive orientations of ultramarathoners. The Sport Psychologist, 6(3), 242–252. https://doi.org/10.1123/tsp.6.3.242.Search in Google Scholar
Alhadabi, A., & Karpinski, A. C. (2020). Grit, self-efficacy, achievement orientation goals, and academic performance in University students. International Journal of Adolescence and Youth, 25(1), 519–535. https://doi.org/10.1080/02673843.2019.1679202.Search in Google Scholar
Andersson, E. K., & Moss, T. P. (2011). Imagery and implementation intention: A randomised controlled trial of interventions to increase exercise behaviour in the general population. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 12(2), 63–70. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychsport.2010.07.004.Search in Google Scholar
Andrade, J., Khalil, M., Dickson, J., May, J., & Kavanagh, D. J. (2016). Functional Imagery Training to reduce snacking: Testing a novel motivational intervention based on Elaborated Intrusion theory. Appetite, 100, 256–262. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.appet.2016.02.015.Search in Google Scholar PubMed
Andrade, J., May, J., Deeprose, C., Baugh, S. J., & Ganis, G. (2014). Assessing vividness of mental imagery: The plymouth sensory imagery questionnaire. British Journal of Psychology, 105(4), 547–563. https://doi.org/10.1111/bjop.12050.Search in Google Scholar PubMed
Anshel, M. H., & Kang, M. (2008). Effectiveness of motivational interviewing on changes in fitness, blood lipids, and exercise adherence of police officers: An outcome-based action study. Journal of Correctional Health Care, 14(1), 48–62. https://doi.org/10.1177/1078345807308846.Search in Google Scholar
Beckmann, J., & Heckhausen, H. (2018). Motivation as a function of expectancy and incentive. In Motivation and action (pp. 163–220). Cham: Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-65094-4_5.Search in Google Scholar
Cassidy, S. (2015). Resilience building in students: The role of academic self-efficacy. Frontiers in Psychology, 6, 1781. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2015.01781.Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central
Chan, C. K., & Cameron, L. D. (2012). Promoting physical activity with goal-oriented mental imagery: A randomized controlled trial. Journal of Behavioral Medicine, 35(3), 347–363. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10865-011-9360-6.Search in Google Scholar PubMed
Chen, G., Gully, S. M., & Eden, D. (2001). Validation of a new general self-efficacy scale. Organizational Research Methods, 4(1), 62–83. https://doi.org/10.1177/109442810141004.Search in Google Scholar
Cohen, J. (1992). A power primer. Psychological Bulletin, 112(1), 155. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.112.1.155.Search in Google Scholar
Cumming, G. (2014). The new statistics: Why and how. Psychological Science, 25(1), 7–29. https://doi.org/10.1177/0956797613504966.Search in Google Scholar PubMed
Duckworth, A. L., Peterson, C., Matthews, M. D., & Kelly, D. R. (2007). Grit: Perseverance and passion for long-term goals. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 92(6), 1087. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.92.6.1087.Search in Google Scholar PubMed
Duckworth, A. L., & Quinn, P. D. (2009). Development and validation of the Short Grit Scale (GRIT–S). Journal of Personality Assessment, 91(2), 166–174. https://doi.org/10.1080/00223890802634290.Search in Google Scholar PubMed
Ebben, W., & Brudzynski, L. (2008). Motivations and barriers to exercise among college students. Journal of Exercise Physiology Online, 11(5).Search in Google Scholar
Egli, T., Bland, H. W., Melton, B. F., & Czech, D. R. (2011). Influence of age, sex, and race on college students’ exercise motivation of physical activity. Journal of American College Health, 59(5), 399–406. https://doi.org/10.1080/07448481.2010.513074.Search in Google Scholar PubMed
Georgoulas-Sherry, V., & Kelly, D. (2019). Resilience, grit, and hardiness: Determining the relationships amongst these constructs through structural equation modeling techniques. Journal of Positive School Psychology, 3(2), 165–178.10.46527/2582-3264.125Search in Google Scholar
Giacobbi, P., Long, D., Nolan, R., Shawley, S., Johnson, K., & Misra, R. (2018). Guided imagery targeting exercise, food cravings, and stress: A multi-modal randomized feasibility trial. Journal of Behavioral Medicine, 41(1), 87–98. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10865-017-9876-5.Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central
Gregg, M., & Hall, C. (2018). Imagery as a skill: Longitudinal analysis of changes in motivational imagery. Imagination, Cognition and Personality, 37(4), 448–457. https://doi.org/10.1177/0276236617735101.Search in Google Scholar
Grunseit, A., Richards, J., & Merom, D. (2018). Running on a high: Parkrun and personal well-being. BMC Public Health, 18(1), 1–11. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-017-4620-1.Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central
Ion, A., Mindu, A., & Gorbănescu, A. (2017). Grit in the workplace: Hype or ripe? Personality and Individual Differences, 111, 163–168. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2017.02.012.Search in Google Scholar
Kim, B. H., Newton, R. A., Sachs, M. L., Giacobbi, P. R., & Glutting, J. J. (2011). The effect of guided relaxation and exercise imagery on self-reported leisure-time exercise behaviors in older adults. Journal of Aging and Physical Activity, 19(2), 137–146. https://doi.org/10.1123/japa.19.2.137.Search in Google Scholar PubMed
Köse, S., & Yıldız, S. (2021). Motivational support programme to enhance health and well‐being and promote weight loss in overweight and obese adolescents: A randomized controlled trial in Turkey. International Journal of Nursing Practice, 27(1), e12878. https://doi.org/10.1111/ijn.12878.Search in Google Scholar PubMed
Krouse, R. Z., Ransdell, L. B., Lucas, S. M., & Pritchard, M. E. (2011). Motivation, goal orientation, coaching, and training habits of women ultrarunners. The Journal of Strength & Conditioning Research, 25(10), 2835–2842. https://doi.org/10.1519/jsc.0b013e318204caa0.Search in Google Scholar
Lakens, D. (2013). Calculating and reporting effect sizes to facilitate cumulative science: A practical primer for t-tests and ANOVAs. Frontiers in Psychology, 4, 863. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2013.00863.Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central
Lang, P. J. (1979). A bio‐informational theory of emotional imagery. Psychophysiology, 16(6), 495–512. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-8986.1979.tb01511.x.Search in Google Scholar PubMed
Lees, F. D., Clark, P. G., Nigg, C. R., & Newman, P. (2005). Barriers to exercise behavior among older adults: A focus-group study. Journal of Aging and Physical Activity, 13(1), 23–33. https://doi.org/10.1123/japa.13.1.23.Search in Google Scholar PubMed
Luszczynska, A., Scholz, U., & Schwarzer, R. (2005). The general self-efficacy scale: Multicultural validation studies. Journal of Psychology, 139(5), 439–457. https://doi.org/10.3200/jrlp.139.5.439-457.Search in Google Scholar PubMed
McKay, S., Skues, J. L., & Williams, B. J. (2019). Does the brief resilience scale actually measure resilience and succumbing? Comparing artefactual and substantive models. Advances in Mental Health, 1–10.10.1080/18387357.2019.1688667Search in Google Scholar
Miller, W. R., & Rollnick, S. (2002). Motivational interviewing: Preparing people for change (2nd ed.). New York: Guilford Press.10.1097/01445442-200305000-00013Search in Google Scholar
Miller, W. R., & Rollnick, S. (2012). Motivational interviewing: Helping people change. Guilford Press.Search in Google Scholar
Oettingen, G. (2012). Future thought and behaviour change. European Review of Social Psychology, 23(1), 1–63. https://doi.org/10.1080/10463283.2011.643698.Search in Google Scholar
Oettingen, G., & Gollwitzer, P. M. (2018). Health behavior change by self-regulation of goal pursuit: Mental contrasting with implementation intentions. In D. de Ridder, M. Adriaanse, & K. Fujita (Eds.), Routledge international handbooks. The Routledge international handbook of self-control in health and well-being (pp. 418–430). Routledge/Taylor & Francis Group.10.4324/9781315648576-33Search in Google Scholar
Paivio, A. (1985). Cognitive and motivational functions of imagery in human performance. Canadian journal of applied sport sciences. Journal Canadien des Sciences Appliquees au Sport, 10(4), 22S–28S.Search in Google Scholar
Reilly, E. D., Ritzert, T. R., Scoglio, A. A., Mote, J., Fukuda, S. D., Ahern, M. E., & Kelly, M. M. (2019). A systematic review of values measures in acceptance and commitment therapy research. Journal of Contextual Behavioral Science, 12, 290–304. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcbs.2018.10.004.Search in Google Scholar
Renner, F., Murphy, F. C., Ji, J. L., Manly, T., & Holmes, E. A. (2019). Mental imagery as a “motivational amplifier” to promote activities. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 114, 51–59. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.brat.2019.02.002.Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central
Rhodes, J., May, J., Andrade, J., & Kavanagh, D. (2018). Enhancing grit through functional imagery training in professional soccer. The Sport Psychologist, 32(3), 220–225. https://doi.org/10.1123/tsp.2017-0093.Search in Google Scholar
Rhodes, J., May, J., & Booth, A. (2020). Penalty success in professional soccer: A randomised comparison between imagery methodologies. Journal of Imagery Research in Sport and Physical Activity, 15(1). https://doi.org/10.1515/jirspa-2020-0014.Search in Google Scholar
Roebuck, G. S., Fitzgerald, P. B., Urquhart, D. M., Ng, S. K., Cicuttini, F. M., & Fitzgibbon, B. M. (2018). The psychology of ultra-marathon runners: A systematic review. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 37, 43–58. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychsport.2018.04.004.Search in Google Scholar
Schwarzer, R., & Jerusalem, M. (1995). Generalized self-efficacy scale. Measures in health psychology: A user’s portfolio. Causal and Control Beliefs, 1(1), 35–37.10.1037/t00393-000Search in Google Scholar
Smith, B. W., Dalen, J., Wiggins, K., Tooley, E., Christopher, P., & Bernard, J. (2008). The brief resilience scale: Assessing the ability to bounce back. International Journal of Behavioral Medicine, 15(3), 194–200. https://doi.org/10.1080/10705500802222972.Search in Google Scholar PubMed
Solbrig, L., Whalley, B., Kavanagh, D. J., May, J., Parkin, T., Jones, R., & Andrade, J. (2018). Functional imagery training versus motivational interviewing for weight loss: A randomised controlled trial of brief individual interventions for overweight and obesity. International Journal of Obesity, 43(4), 883–894. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41366-018-0122-1.Search in Google Scholar PubMed
Turner, C., Rhodes, J., Crocker, D., Nedza, K., & May, J. (2020). An interdisciplinary approach to improving the quality of life in postural orthostatic tachycardia syndrome: A case study. Case Studies in Sport and Exercise Psychology, 4(1), 134–141. https://doi.org/10.1123/cssep.2020-0010.Search in Google Scholar
Waśkiewicz, Z., Nikolaidis, P. T., Chalabaev, A., Rosemann, T., & Knechtle, B. (2019). Motivation in ultra-marathon runners. Psychology Research and Behavior Management, 12, 31. https://doi.org/10.2147/PRBM.S189061.Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central
Webster, D., & Rivers, N. (2019). Resisting resilience: Disrupting discourses of self-efficacy. Pedagogy, Culture & Society, 27(4), 523–535. https://doi.org/10.1080/14681366.2018.1534261.Search in Google Scholar
Williams, S. E., Cooley, S. J., & Cumming, J. (2013). Layered stimulus response training improves motor imagery ability and movement execution. Journal of Sport & Exercise Psychology, 35(1), 60–71. https://doi.org/10.1123/jsep.35.1.60.Search in Google Scholar PubMed
Windle, G., Bennett, K. M., & Noyes, J. (2011). A methodological review of resilience measurement scales. Health and Quality of Life Outcomes, 9(1), 1–18. https://doi.org/10.1186/1477-7525-9-8.Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central
Zach, S., Xia, Y., Zeev, A., Arnon, M., Choresh, N., & Tenenbaum, G. (2017). Motivation dimensions for running a marathon: A new model emerging from the Motivation of Marathon Scale (MOMS). Journal of Sport and Health Science, 6(3), 302–310. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jshs.2015.10.003.Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central
© 2021 Walter de Gruyter GmbH, Berlin/Boston
