Abstract
The very high temperature (≥1400°C) steam oxidation resistance of thin-walled FeCrAl tubes is being investigated as an alternative to Zr-based alloys for enhanced accident-tolerant light water reactor fuel cladding. Initial work examined commercial FeCrAl with ~20% Cr in ramp testing with 1 min hold times at temperatures up to 1700°C. At 1400–1500°C, excellent oxidation resistance was observed with thin external alumina scales formed in contrast to the thick oxides formed on Zircaloy-4 under similar conditions. For an optimized FeCrAl with 13% Cr, one batch of tubing performed poorly at 1400°C, while the second batch formed a protective scale at 1400°C but was fully oxidized at 1500°C. Differences in performance between two test rigs suggest a role of gas velocity, and initial work on bulk alumina specimens has quantified an evaporation rate. However, some results suggest that melting is occurring well below 1500°C. This behavior is still being investigated.
Acknowledgments
The experimental work was conducted by M. Howell, T. Lowe, and T. Jordan. S.S. Raiman and K.A. Terrani provided useful comments on the manuscript. This research was funded by the U.S. Department of Energy’s Office of Nuclear Energy, Advanced Fuel Campaign of the Fuel Cycle R&D program.
References
Cheng T, Keiser JR, Brady MP, Terrani KA, Pint BA. Oxidation of fuel cladding candidate materials in steam environments at high temperature and pressure. J Nucl Mater 2012; 427: 396–400.10.1016/j.jnucmat.2012.05.007Search in Google Scholar
Edmondson PD, Briggs SA, Yamamoto Y, Howard RH, Sridharan K, Terrani KA, Field KG. Irradiation-enhanced α′ precipitation in model FeCrAl alloys. Scripta Mater 2016; 116: 112–116.10.1016/j.scriptamat.2016.02.002Search in Google Scholar
Field KG, Gussev MN, Yamamoto Y, Snead LL. Deformation behavior of laser welds in high temperature oxidation resistant Fe-Cr-Al alloys for fuel cladding applications. J Nucl Mater 2014; 454: 352–358.10.1016/j.jnucmat.2014.08.013Search in Google Scholar
Field KG, Hu X, Littrell K, Yamamoto Y, Snead LL. Radiation tolerance of neutron-irradiated model Fe-Cr-Al alloys. J Nucl Mater 2015; 465: 746–755.10.1016/j.jnucmat.2015.06.023Search in Google Scholar
Gauntt R, Kalinich D, Cardoni J, Phillips J, Goldmann A, Pickering S, Francis M, Robb K, Ott L, Wang D, Smith C, St.Germain S, Schwieder D, Phelan C. Fukushima Daiichi accident study (status as of April 2012). Sandia National Laboratory Report, SAND2012-6173, Albuquerque, NM, 2012.10.2172/1055601Search in Google Scholar
Gurrappa I, Weinbruch S, Naumenko D, Quadakkers WJ. Factors governing breakaway oxidation of FeCrAl-based alloys. Mater Corros 2000; 51: 224–235.10.1002/(SICI)1521-4176(200004)51:4<224::AID-MACO224>3.0.CO;2-BSearch in Google Scholar
Hu XX, Terrani KA, Wirth BD, Snead LL. Hydrogen permeation in FeCrAl alloys for LWR cladding application. J Nucl Mater 2015; 461: 282–291.10.1016/j.jnucmat.2015.02.040Search in Google Scholar
Jerebtsov DA, Mikhailov GG, Sverdina SV. Phase diagram of the system: Al2O3–ZrO2. Ceram Inter 2000; 26: 821–823.10.1016/S0272-8842(00)00023-7Search in Google Scholar
Jönsson B, Svedberg C. Limiting factors for Fe-Cr-Al and NiCr in controlled industrial atmospheres. Mater Sci Forum 1997; 251–254: 551–558.10.4028/www.scientific.net/MSF.251-254.551Search in Google Scholar
Jönsson B, Berglund R, Magnusson J, Henning P, Hättestrand M. High temperature properties of a new powder metallurgical FeCrAl alloy. Mater Sci Forum 2004; 461–464: 455–462.10.4028/www.scientific.net/MSF.461-464.455Search in Google Scholar
Jönsson B, Lu Q, Chandrasekaran D, Berglund R, Rave F. Oxidation and creep limited lifetime of Kanthal APMT®, a dispersion strengthened FeCrAlMo alloy designed for strength and oxidation resistance at high temperatures. Oxid Met 2013; 79: 29–39.10.1007/s11085-012-9324-4Search in Google Scholar
Katoh Y, Snead LL, Szlufarska I, Weber WJ. Radiation effects in SiC for nuclear structural applications. Curr Opin Solid State Mater Sci 2012; 16: 143–152.10.1016/j.cossms.2012.03.005Search in Google Scholar
Massey CP, Terrani KA, Dryepondt SN, Pint BA. Cladding burst behavior of Fe-based alloys under LOCA. J Nucl Mater 2016; 470: 128–138.10.1016/j.jnucmat.2015.12.018Search in Google Scholar
Naumenko D, Pint BA, Quadakkers WJ. Current thoughts on reactive element effects in alumina-forming systems – in memory of John Stringer. Oxid Met 2016; 86: 1–43.10.1007/s11085-016-9625-0Search in Google Scholar
Opila EJ. Volatility of common protective oxides in high-temperature water vapor: current understanding and unanswered questions. Mater Sci Forum 2004; 461–464: 765–774.10.4028/www.scientific.net/MSF.461-464.765Search in Google Scholar
Opila EJ, Myers DL. Alumina volatility in water vapor at elevated temperatures. J Am Ceram Soc 2004; 87: 1701–1705.10.1111/j.1551-2916.2004.01701.xSearch in Google Scholar
Ott LJ, Robb KR, Wang D. Preliminary assessment of accident-tolerant fuels on LWR performance during normal operation and under DB and BDB accident conditions. J Nucl Mater 2014; 448: 520–533.10.1016/j.jnucmat.2013.09.052Search in Google Scholar
Pettit FS, Randklev EH, Felten EJ. Formation of NiAl2O4 by solid state reaction. J Am Ceram Soc 1966; 49: 199–203.10.1111/j.1151-2916.1966.tb13233.xSearch in Google Scholar
Pint BA. Optimization of reactive element additions to improve oxidation performance of alumina-forming alloys. J Am Ceram Soc 2003; 86: 686–695.10.1111/j.1151-2916.2003.tb03358.xSearch in Google Scholar
Pint BA, DiStefano JR, Wright IG. Oxidation resistance: one barrier to moving beyond Ni-base superalloys. Mater Sci Eng A 2006a; 415: 255–263.10.1016/j.msea.2005.09.091Search in Google Scholar
Pint BA, Haynes JA, Zhang Y, More KL, Wright IG. The effect of water vapor on the oxidation behavior of Ni-Pt-Al coatings and alloys. Surf Coat Technol 2006b; 201: 3852–3856.10.1016/j.surfcoat.2006.07.244Search in Google Scholar
Pint BA, Dryepondt S, Rouaix-Vande Put A, Zhang Y. Mechanistic- based lifetime predictions for high temperature alloys and coatings. J Oper Manag 2012; 64: 1454–1460.10.1007/s11837-012-0474-2Search in Google Scholar
Pint BA, Terrani KA, Brady MP, Cheng T, Keiser JR. High temperature oxidation of fuel cladding candidate materials in steam-hydrogen environments. J Nucl Mater 2013; 440: 420–427.10.1016/j.jnucmat.2013.05.047Search in Google Scholar
Pint BA, Dryepondt S, Unocic KA, Hoelzer DT. Development of ODS FeCrAl for compatibility in fusion and fission applications. J Oper Manag 2014; 66: 2458–2466.10.1007/s11837-014-1200-zSearch in Google Scholar
Pint BA, Terrani KA, Yamamoto Y, Snead LL. Material selection for accident tolerant fuel cladding. Metallurg Mater Trans E 2015a; 2: 190–196.10.1007/s40553-015-0056-7Search in Google Scholar
Pint BA, Unocic KA, Terrani KA. The effect of steam on the high temperature oxidation behavior of alumina-forming alloys. Mater High Temp 2015b; 32: 28–35.10.1179/0960340914Z.00000000058Search in Google Scholar
Quadakkers WJ, Bennett MJ. Oxidation induced lifetime limits of thin walled, iron based, alumina forming, oxide dispersion strengthened alloy components. Mater Sci Technol 1994; 10: 126–131.10.1179/mst.1994.10.2.126Search in Google Scholar
Rebak RB. Alloy selection for accident tolerant fuel cladding in commercial light water reactors. Metal Mater Trans E 2015; 2: 197–207.10.1007/s40553-015-0057-6Search in Google Scholar
Robb KR, Francis MW, Ott LJ. Insight from Fukushima Daiichi unit 3 investigations using MELCOR. Nucl Technol 2014; 186: 145–160.10.13182/NT13-43Search in Google Scholar
Robb KR, McMurray JW, Terrani KA. Severe accident analysis of BWR core fueled with UO2/FeCrAl with updated materials and melt properties from experiments. ORNL TM-2016/237, Oak Ridge, TN, 2016.10.2172/1259432Search in Google Scholar
Steinbrück M, Boettcher M. Air oxidation of Zircaloy-4, M5(R) and ZIRLO(TM) cladding alloys at high temperatures. J Nucl Mater 2011; 414: 276–285.10.1016/j.jnucmat.2011.04.012Search in Google Scholar
Stott FH, Wood GC, Stringer J. The influence of alloying elements on the development and maintenance of protective scales. Oxid Met 1995; 44: 113–145.10.1007/BF01046725Search in Google Scholar
Terrani KA, Parish CM, Shin D, Pint BA. Protection of zirconium by alumina- and chromia-forming iron alloys under high-temperature steam exposure. J Nucl Mater 2013; 438: 64–71.10.1016/j.jnucmat.2013.03.006Search in Google Scholar
Terrani KA, Zinkle SJ, Snead LL. Advanced oxidation-resistant iron-based alloys for LWR fuel cladding. J Nucl Mater 2014a; 448: 420–435.10.1016/j.jnucmat.2013.06.041Search in Google Scholar
Terrani KA, Pint BA, Parish CM, Silva CM, Snead LL, Katoh Y. Silicon carbide oxidation in steam up to 2 MPa. J Am Ceram Soc 2014b; 97: 2331–2352.10.1111/jace.13094Search in Google Scholar
Terrani KA, Yang Y, Kim YJ, Rebak R, Meyer III HM, Gerczak TJ. Hydrothermal corrosion of SiC in LWR coolant environments in the absence of irradiation. J Nucl Mater 2015; 465: 488–498.10.1016/j.jnucmat.2015.06.019Search in Google Scholar
Terrani KA, Pint BA, Kim YJ, Unocic KA, Yang Y, Silva CM, Meyer HM, Rebak RB. Uniform corrosion of FeCrAl alloys in LWR coolant environments. J Nucl Mater 2016; 479: 36–47.10.1016/j.jnucmat.2016.06.047Search in Google Scholar
Unocic KA, Hoelzer DT, Pint BA. The microstructure and environmental resistance of low-Cr ODS FeCrAl. Mater High Temp 2015; 32: 123–132.10.1179/0960340914Z.00000000088Search in Google Scholar
Unocic KA, Yamamoto Y, Pint BA. Effect of Al and Cr content on air and steam oxidation of FeCrAl alloys and commercial APMT alloy. Oxid Met 2017; 87: 431–441.10.1007/s11085-017-9745-1Search in Google Scholar
Vierow K, Liao Y, Johnson J, Kenton M, Gauntt R. Severe accident analysis of a PWR station blackout with the MELCOR, MAAP4 and SCDAP/RELAP5 codes. Nucl Eng Design 2004; 234: 129–145.10.1016/j.nucengdes.2004.09.001Search in Google Scholar
Yamamoto Y, Pint BA, Terrani KA, Field KG, Yang Y, Snead LL. Development and property evaluation of nuclear grade wrought FeCrAl fuel cladding for light water reactors. J Nucl Mater 2015; 467: 703–716.10.1016/j.jnucmat.2015.10.019Search in Google Scholar
Yan Y, Keiser JR, Terrani KA, Bell GL, Snead LL. Post-quench ductility evaluation of Zircaloy-4 and select iron alloys under design basis and extended LOCA conditions. J Nucl Mater 2014; 448: 436–440.10.1016/j.jnucmat.2013.05.071Search in Google Scholar
Zinkle SJ, Terrani KA, Gehin JC, Ott LJ, Snead LL. Accident tolerant fuels for LWRs: a perspective. J Nucl Mater 2014; 448: 374–379.10.1016/j.jnucmat.2013.12.005Search in Google Scholar
Article note:
This manuscript has been authored by UT-Battelle, LLC, under contract no. DE-AC05-00OR22725 with the U.S. Department of Energy (DOE). The United States government retains and the publisher, by accepting the article for publication, acknowledges that the United States government retains a non-exclusive, paid-up, irrevocable, worldwide license to publish or reproduce the published form of this manuscript, or allow others to do so, for United States government purposes. The DOE will provide public access to these results of federally sponsored research in accordance with the DOE Public Access Plan (http://energy.gov/downloads/doe-public-access-plan).
©2017 Walter de Gruyter GmbH, Berlin/Boston
