Abstract
From even the most basic physiological observations, it is obvious that parts of the heart can generate their own intrinsic contractile rhythm. With the development of techniques to record electrical activity from tissues, it became clear that contraction of the heart is triggered by an action potential and that most areas of the heart can, under some circumstances, generate rhythmic action potentials, although it is cells in the sinoatrial node (SAN) that have the highest intrinsic frequency, and hence it is these cells that normally provide the drive for the rest of the heart. Even a single, isolated SAN cell will generate rhythmic action potentials separated by a period of slow diastolic depolarization. It is the diastolic depolarization that repeatedly drives the membrane potential towards threshold for action potential firing. The mechanism underlying this diastolic depolarization has been a subject of much puzzlement. By the 1970s, it was clear that to provide a slow depolarization, there must be a slow increase in net inward current, although it was not clear whether this came about as a consequence of the slow inactivation of an outward current (presumed to be a carried by potassium) or the slow activation of an inward current (1). Using the intracellular recording and voltage clamp techniques available at the time, it was difficult to resolve the different components of the current flowing during the diastolic depolarization (2–4). With the advent of patch-clamp techniques, coupled with techniques for preparation of isolated cells from various parts of the heart, resolution of individual currents became possible. The mechanism of the diastolic depolarization was greatly clarified by the discovery in pacemaker cells of an inward current that was activated by hyperpolarization (5–8).
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution.
Buying options
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
Learn about institutional subscriptionsREFERENCES
DiFrancesco, D. (1995) The onset and autonomic regulation of cardiac pacemaker activity: Relevance of the f current. Cardiovasc Res. 29, 449–456.
Yanagihara, K. and Irisawa, H. (1980) Inward current activated during hyperpolarization in the rabbit sinoatrial node cell. Pflugers Arch. 385, 11–19.
Brown, H. F., Giles, W., and Noble, S. J. (1977) Membrane currents underlying activity in frog sinus venosus. J. Physiol. 271, 783–816.
DiFrancesco, D. (1981) A new interpretation of the pace-maker current in calf Purkinje fibres. J. Physiol. 314, 359–376.
Brown, H. and DiFrancesco, D. (1980) Voltage-clamp investigations of membrane currents underlying pace-maker activity in rabbit sino-atrial node. J. Physiol. 308, 331–351.
DiFrancesco, D. and Ojeda, C. (1980) Properties of the current if in the sino-atrial node of the rabbit compared with those of the current iK, in Purkinje fibres. J. Physiol. 308, 353–367.
Irisawa, H. and Noma, A. (1984) Pacemaker currents in mammalian nodal cells. J. Mol. Cell Cardiol. 16, 777–781.
Maylie, J. and Morad, M. (1984) Ionic currents responsible for the generation of pacemaker current in the rabbit sino-atrial node. J. Physiol. 355, 215–235.
Bader, C. R., Macleish, P. R., and Schwartz, E. A. (1979) A voltage-clamp study of the light response in solitary rods of the tiger salamander. J. Physiol. 296, 1–26.
DiFrancesco, D. (1993). Pacemaker mechanisms in cardiac tissue. Annu. Rev. Physiol. 55, 455–472.
McCormick, D. A. and Pape, H. C. (1990) Properties of a hyperpolarization-activated cation current and its role in rhythmic oscillation in thalamic relay neurones. J. Physiol. 431, 291–318.
Pape, H. C. (1996) Queer current and pacemaker: The hyperpolarization-activated cation current in neurons. Annu. Rev. Physiol. 58, 299–327.
Maccaferri, G. and McBain, C. J. (1996) The hyperpolarization-activated current (Ih) and its contribution to pacemaker activity in rat CA1 hippocampal stratum oriens-alveus interneurones. J. Physiol. 497, 119–130.
Luthi, A. and McCormick, D.A. (1998) H-current: Properties of a neuronal and network pacemaker. Neuron 21, 9–12.
Demontis, G. C., Longoni, B., Barcaro, U., and Cervetto, L. (1999) Properties and functional roles of hyperpolarization-gated currents in guinea-pig retinal rods. J. Physiol. 515, 813–828.
Magee, J. C. (1999) Dendritic Ih normalizes temporal summation in hippocampal CA1 neurons. Nat. Neurosci. 2, 848.
Beaumont, V. and Zucker, R. S. (2000) Enhancement of synaptic transmission by cyclic AMP modulation of presynaptic Ih channels. Nat. Neurosci. 3, 133–141.
Southan, A. P., Morris, N. P., Stephens, G. J., and Robertson, B. (2000) Hyperpolarization activated currents in presynaptic terminals of mouse cerebellar basket cells. J. Physiol. 526, 91–97.
DiFrancesco, D. (1995) The pacemaker current (I(f)) plays an important role in regulating SA node pacemaker activity. Cardiovasc. Res. 30, 307–308.
Vassalle, M. (1995) The pacemaker current (I(f)) does not play an important role in regulating SA node pacemaker activity. Cardiovasc. Res. 30, 309–310.
Noble, D., Denyer, J. C., Brown, H. F., and DiFrancesco, D. (1992) Reciprocal role of the inward currents ib, Na and i(f) in controlling and stabilizing pacemaker frequency of rabbit sino-atrial node cells. Proc. R Soc. Lond. B Biol. Sci. 250, 199–207.
Liu, Y. M., Yu, H., Li, C. Z., Cohen, I. S., and Vassalle, M. (1998) Cesium effects on If and IK in rabbit sinoatrial node myocytes. Implications for SA node automaticity. J. Cardiovasc. Pharmacol. 32, 783–790.
Baker, K., Warren, K. S., Yellen, G., and Fishman, M. C. (1997) Defective “pacemaker” current (Ih) in a zebrafish mutant with a slow heart rate. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 94, 4554–4559.
DiFrancesco, D., Ferroni, A., Mazzanti, M., and Tromba, C. (1986) Properties of the hyperpolarizing-activated current (if) in cells isolated from the rabbit sino-atrial node. J. Physiol. 377, 61–68.
DiFrancesco, D. (1986) Characterization of single pacemaker channels in cardiac sinoatrial node cells. Nature 324, 470–473.
DiFrancesco, D. and Tortora, P. (1991) Direct activation of cardiac pacemaker channels by intracellular cyclic AMP. Nature 351, 145–147.
DiFrancesco, D. and Mangoni, M. (1994) Modulation of single hyperpolarization-activated channels (i(f)) by cAMP in the rabbit sino-atrial node. J. Physiol. 474, 473–482.
Accili, E. A., Redaelli, G., and DiFrancesco, D. (1997) Differential control of the hyperpolarization-activated current (i(f)) by cAMP gating and phosphatase inhibition in rabbit sino-atrial node myocytes. J. Physiol. 500, 643–651.
Chang, F., Cohen, I. S., DiFrancesco, D., Rosen, M. R., and Tromba, C. (1991) Effects of protein kinase inhibitors on canine Purkinje fibre pacemaker depolarization and the pacemaker current i(f). J. Physiol. 440, 367–384.
Wu, J. Y., Yu, H., and Cohen, I. S. (2000) Epidermal growth factor increases i(f) in rabbit SA node cells by activating a tyrosine kinase. Biochim. Biophys. Acta. 1463, 1–19.
Renaudon, B., Lenfant, J., Decressac, S., and Bois, P. (2000) Thyroid hormone increases the conductance density of f-channels in rabbit sino-atrial node cells. Receptors Channels 7, 1–8.
Hara, M., Liu, Y. M., Zhen, L., Cohen, I. S., Yu, H., Danilo P, Jr., et al. (1997) Positive chronotropic actions of parathyroid hormone and parathyroid hormone-related peptide are associated with increases in the current, I(f), and the slope of the pacemaker potential. Circulation 96, 3704–3709.
DiFrancesco, D. and Tromba, C. (1988) Inhibition of the hyperpolarization-activated current (if) induced by acetylcholine in rabbit sino-atrial node myocytes. J. Physiol. 405, 477–491.
Santoro, B. and Tibbs, G. R. (1999) The HCN gene family: Molecular basis of the hyperpolarization-activated pacemaker channels. Ann. NY Acad. Sci. 868, 741–764.
Yu, H., Chang, F., and Cohen, I. S. (1995) Pacemaker current If in adult canine cardiac ventricular myocytes. J. Physiol. 485, 469–483.
Santoro, B., Grant, S. G., Bartsch, D., and Kandel, E. R. (1997) Interactive cloning with the SH3 domain of N-src identifies a new brain specific ion channel protein, with homology to eag and cyclic nucleotide-gated channels. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 94, 14,815–14,820.
Ishii, T. M., Takano, M., Xie, L. H., Noma, A., and Ohmori, H. (1999) Molecular characterization of the hyperpolarization-activated cation channel in rabbit heart sinoatrial node. J. Biol. Chem. 274, 12,835–12,839.
Ludwig, A., Zong, X., Jeglitsch, M., Hofmann, F., and Biel, M. (1998) A family of hyperpolarization-activated mammalian cation channels. Nature 393, 587–591.
Santoro, B., Liu, D. T., Yao, H., Bartsch, D., Kandel, E. R., Siegelbaum, S. A., and Tibbs, G. R. (1998). Identification of a gene encoding a hyperpolarization-activated pacemaker channel of brain. Cell 93, 717–729.
Vaccari, T., Moroni, A., Rocchi, M., Gorza, L., Bianchi, M. E., Beltrame, M., and DiFrancesco, D. (1999) The human gene coding for HCN2, the pacemaker channel of the heart. Biochim. Biophys. Acta. 1446, 419–425.
Moroni, A., Barbuti, A., Altomare, C., Viscomi, C., Morgan, J., Baruscotti, M., and DiFrancesco, D. (2000) Kinetic and ionic properties of the human HCN2 pacemaker channel. Pflügers Arch. 439, 618–626.
Clapham, D. E. (1998) Not so funny anymore: Pacing channels are cloned. Neuron 21, 5–7.
Biel, M., Ludwig, A., Zong, X., and Hofmann, F. (1999) Hyperpolarization-activated cation channels: A multi-gene family. Rev. Physiol. Biochem. Pharmacol. 136, 165–181.
Vaca, L., Stieber, J., Zong, X., Ludwig, A., Hofmann, F., and Biel, M. (2000) Mutations in the S4 domain of a pacemaker channel alter its voltage dependence. FEBS Lett. 479, 35–40.
Doyle, D. A., Morais Cabral, J., Pfuetzner, R. A., Kuo, A., Gulbis, J. M., Cohen, S. L., et al. (1998) The structure of the potassium channel: molecular basis of K+ conduction and selectivity. Science 280, 69–77.
Heginbotham, L., Lu, Z., Abramson, T., and MacKinnon, R. (1994) Mutations in the K+ channel signature sequence. Biophys. J. 66, 1061–1067.
Zagotta, W. N. and Siegelbaum, S. A. (1996) Structure and function of cyclic nucleotidegated channels. Annu. Rev. Neurosci. 19, 235–263.
Wainger, B. J., DeGennaro, M., Santoro, B., Siegelbaum, S. A., and Tibbs, G. R. (2001) Molecular mechanism of cAMP modulation of HCN pacemaker channels. Nature 411, 805–810.
Ludwig, A., Zong, X., Stieber, J., Hullin, R., Hofmann, F., and Biel, M. (1999) Two pacemaker channels from human heart with profoundly different activation kinetics. EMBO J. 18, 2323–2329.
Santoro, B., Chen, S., Luthi, A., Pavlidis, P., Shumyatsky, G. P., Tibbs, G. R., et al. (2000) Molecular and functional heterogeneity of hyperpolarization-activated pacemaker channels in the mouse CNS. J. Neurosci. 20, 5264–5275.
Seifert, R., Scholten, A., Gauss, R., Mincheva, A., Lichter, P., and Kaupp, U. B. (1999) Molecular characterization of a slowly gating human hyperpolarization-activated channel predominantly expressed in thalamus, heart, and testis. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 96, 9391–9396.
Yu, H., Wu, J., Potapova, I., Wymore, R. T., Holmes, B., Zuckerman, J., et al. (2001) MinK-related peptide 1: A beta subunit for the HCN ion channel subunit family enhances expression and speeds activation. Circ. Res. 88, E847–E87.
Maruoka, F., Nakashima, Y., Takano, M., Ono, K., and Noma, A. (1994) Cation-dependent gating of the hyperpolarization-activated cation current in the rabbit sino-atrial node cells. J. Physiol. 477, 423–435.
Solomon, J. S. and Nerbonne, J. M. (1993) Two kinetically distinct components of hyperpolarization-activated current in rat superior colliculus-projecting neurons. J. Physiol. 469, 291–313.
Chen, S., Wang, J., and Siegelbaum, S. A. (2001) Properties of hyperpolarization-activated pacemaker current defined by coassembly of HCN1 and HCN2 subunits and basal modulation by cyclic nucleotide. J. Gen. Physiol. 117, 491–504.
Boyett, M. R., Honjo, H., and Kodama, I. (2000) The sinoatrial node, a heterogeneous pacemaker structure. Cardiovasc. Res. 47, 658–687.
Shi, W., Wymore, R., Yu, H., Wu, J., Wymore, R. T., Pan, Z., et al. (1999) Distribution and prevalence of hyperpolarization-activated cation channel (HCN) mRNA expression in cardiac tissues. Circ. Res. 85, e1–e6.
Zhang, H., Holden, A. V., and Boyett, M. R. (2000) Gradient model versus mosaic model of the sinoatrial node. Circulation 103, 584–588.
Nikmaram, M. R., Boyett, M. R., Kodama, I., Suzuki, R., and Honjo, H. (1997) Variation in effects of Cs+, UL-FS-49, and ZD-7288 within sinoatrial node. Am. J. Physiol. 272, H2782–H2792.
Moosmang, S., Stieber, J., Zong, X., Biel, M., Hofmann, F., and Ludwig, A. (2001) Cellular expression and functional characterization of four hyperpolarization-activated pacemaker channels in cardiac and neuronal tissues. Eur. J. Biochem. 268, 1646–1652.
Monteggia, L. M., Eisch, A. J., Tang, M. D., Kaczmarek, L. K., and Nestler, E. J. (2000) Cloning and localization of the hyperpolarization-activated cyclic nucleotide-gated channel family in rat brain. Brain Res. Mol. Brain Res. 81, 129–139.
Greenwood, I. A. and Prestwich, S. A. (2002) Characteristics of hyperpolarization-activated cation currents in portal vein smooth muscle cells. Am. J. Physiol. Cell Physiol. 282, C744–C753.
Stevens, D. R., Seifert, R., Bufe, B., Muller, F., Kremmer, E., Gauss, R., et al. (2001) Hyperpolarization-activated channels HCN1 and HCN4 mediate responses to sour stimuli. Nature 413, 631–635.
Boudoulas, H., Rittgers, S., Lewis, R., Leier, C., and Weissler, A. (1979) Changes in diastolic time with various pharmacologic agents: Implications for myocardial perfusion. Circulation 60, 164–169.
Hoffman, J. (1990) Autoregulation and heart rate. Circulation 82, 1880–1881.
Guth, B., Heusch, G., Seitelberger, R., and Ross, J. (1987) Elimination of exercise-induced regional myocardial dysfunction by a bradycardic agent in dogs with chronic coronary stenosis. Circulation 75, 661–669.
O’Brien, P., Drage, D., Saeian, K., Brooks, H., and Warltier, D. (1992) Regional redistribution of myocardial perfusion by UL-FS49, a selective bradycardic agent. Am. Heart J. 123, 5665–5674.
Schlack, W., Ebel, D., Grunert, S., Halilovic, S., Meyer, O., and Thamer, V. (1998) Effect of heart rate reduction by 4-(N-ethyl-N-phenyl-amino)-1,2-dimethyl-6-(methyl-amino)pyrimidinium chloride on infarct size in dog. Arzneimittelforschung 48, 26–33.
Indolfi, C., Guth, B. D., Miura, T., Miyazaki, S., Schulz, R., and Ross J. Jr. (1989) Mechanisms of improved ischemic regional dysfunction by bradycardia. Studies on UL-FS 49 in swine. Circulation 80, 983–993.
Cerbai, E., Sartiani, L., DePaoli, P., Pino, R., Maccherini, M., Bizzarri, F., et al. (2001) The properties of the pacemaker current I(F)in human ventricular myocytes are modulated by cardiac disease. J. Mol. Cell Cardiol. 33, 441–448.
Hoppe, U. C., Jansen, E., Sudkamp, M., and Beuckelmann, D. J. (1998) Hyperpolarization-activated inward current in ventricular myocytes from normal and failing human hearts. Circulation 97, 55–65.
DiFrancesco, D. (1982) Block and activation of the pace-maker channel in calf purkinje fibres: effects of potassium, caesium and rubidium. J. Physiol. 329, 485–507.
Zhou, Z. and Lipsius, S. L. (1992) Properties of the pacemaker current (If) in latent pacemaker cells isolated from cat right atrium. J. Physiol. 453, 503–523.
BoSmith, R. E., Briggs, I., and Sturgess, N. C. (1993) Inhibitory actions of ZENECA ZD7288 on whole-cell hyperpolarization activated inward current (If) in guinea-pig dissociated sinoatrial node cells. Br. J. Pharmacol. 110, 343–349.
Goethals, M., Raes A., and Van Bogaert, P. P. (1993) Use-dependent block of the pacemaker current I(f) in rabbit sinoatrial node cells by zatebradine (UL-FS 49). On the mode of action of sinus node inhibitors. Circulation 88, 2389–2401.
Traunecker, W. and Walland, A. (1980) Haemodynamic and electrophysiologic actions of alinidine in the dog. Arch. Int. Pharmacodyn. Ther. 244, 58–72.
Harron, D. W., Jady, K., Riddell, J. G., and Shanks, R. G. (1982) Effects of alinidine, a novel bradycardic agent, on heart rate and blood pressure in man. J. Cardiovasc. Pharmacol. 4, 213–220.
Satoh, H. and Hashimoto, K. (1986) Electrophysiological study of alinidine in voltage clamped rabbit sino-atrial node cells. Eur. J. Pharmacol. 121, 211–219.
Millar, J. S. and Williams, E. M. (1981) Pacemaker selectivity: Influence on rabbit atria of ionic environment and of alinidine, a possible anion antagonist. Cardiovasc. Res. 15, 335–350.
Jaski, B. E. and Serruys, P. W. (1985) Anion-channel blockade with alinidine: A specific bradycardic drug for coronary heart disease without negative inotropic activity? Am. J. Cardiol. 56, 270–275.
McPherson, G. A. and Angus, J. A. (1989) Phentolamine and structurally related compounds selectively antagonize the vascular actions of the K+ channel opener, cromromakalim. Br. J. Pharmacol. 97, 941–949.
Streller, I. and Walland, A. (1990) Antiischemic effects of alinidine in paced isolated rat hearts. Basic Res Cardiol. 85, 71–77.
Lang, U., Streller, I., and Walland, A. (1989) Alinidine antagonizes the myocardial effects of adenosine. Eur. J. Pharmacol. 164, 13–22.
Lang, U. and Walland, A. (1989) Alinidine reverses the descending staircase of isolated rat atria by an antimuscarinic action. Naunyn Schmiedebergs Arch. Pharmacol. 339, 456–463.
Takeda, M., Furukawa, Y., Ogiwara, Y., Saegusa, K., Haniuda, M., Akahane, K., et al. (1989) Effects on atrio-ventricular conduction of alinidine and falipamil injected into the AV node artery of the anesthetized dog. Arch. Int. Pharmacodyn Ther. 297, 39–48.
Aidonidis, I., Brachmann, J., Rizos, I., Zacharoulis, A., Stavridis, I., Toutouzas, P., et al. (1995) Electropharmacology of the bradycardic agents alinidine and zatebradine (UL-FS 49) in a conscious canine ventricular arrhythmia model of permanent coronary artery occlusion. Cardiovasc. Drugs Ther. 9, 555–563.
Boucher, M., Chassaing, C., and Chapuy, E. (1995) Cardiac electrophysiologic effects of alinidine, a specific bradycardic agent, in the conscious dog: Plasma concentration-response relations. J. Cardiovasc. Pharmacol. 25, 229–233.
Meinertz, T., Kasper, W., and Jahnchen, E. (1987) Alinidine in heart patients: Electrophysiologic and antianginal actions. Eur. Heart J. 8, 109–114.
Koenig, W., Stauch, M., Sund, M., Wanjura, D., and Henze, E. (1990) Hemodynamic effects of alinidine (ST 567) at rest and during exercise in patients with chronic congestive heart failure. Am. Heart J. 119, 1348–1354.
Van de Werf, F., Janssens, L., Brzostek, T., Mortelmans, L., Wackers, F. J., Willems, G. M., et al. (1993) Short-term effects of early intravenous treatment with a beta-adrenergic blocking agent or a specific bradycardiac agent in patients with acute myocardial infarction receiving thrombolytic therapy. J. Am. Coll. Cardiol. 22, 407–416.
Challinor-Rogers, J. L., Rosenfeldt, F. L., Du, X. J., and McPherson, G. A. (1997) Antiischemic and antiarrhythmic activities of some novel alinidine analogs in the rat heart. J. Cardiovasc. Pharmacol. 29, 499–507.
Leitch, S. P., Sears, C. E., Brown, H. F., and Paterson, D. J. (1995) Effects of high potassium and the bradycardic agents ZD7288 and cesium on heart rate of rabbits and guinea pigs. J. Cardiovasc. Pharmacol. 25, 300–306.
BoSmith, R. E., Briggs, I., and Sturgess, N. C. (1993) Inhibitory actions of Zeneca ZD7288 on whole-cell hyperpolarization activated inward current (If) in guinea-pig dissociated sinoatrial node cells. Br. J. Pharmacol. 110, 343–349.
Rothberg, B. S., Shin, K. S., Phale, P. S., and Yellen, G. (2002) Voltage-controlled gating at the intracellular entrance to a hyperpolarization-activated cation channel. J. Gen. Physiol. 119, 83–91.
Berger, F., Borchard, U., Gelhaar, R., Hafner, D., and Weis, T. (1994) Effects of the bradycardic agent ZD 7288 on membrane voltage and pacemaker current in sheep cardiac Purkinje fibres. Naunyn Schmiedebergs Arch Pharmacol. 350, 677–684.
Briggs, I., BoSmith, R. E., and Heapy, C. G. (1994) Effects of Zeneca ZD7288 in comparison with alinidine and UL-FS 49 on guinea pig sinoatrial node and ventricular action potentials. J. Cardiovasc. Pharmacol. 24, 380–387.
Harris, N. C. and Constanti, A. (1995) Mechanism of block by ZD 7288 of the hyperpolarization-activated inward rectifying current in guinea pig substantia nigra neurons in vitro. J. Neurophysiol. 7, 2366–2378.
Gasparini, S. and DiFrancesco, D. (1997) Action of the hyperpolarization-activated current (Ih) blocker ZD 7288 in hippocampal CA1 neurons. Pflugers Arch. 435, 99–106.
Satoh, T. O. and Yamada, M. (2000) A bradycardiac agent ZD7288 blocks the hyperpolarization-activated current (I(h)) in retinal rod photoreceptors. Neuropharmacology 39, 1289–1291.
Hohnloser, S., Weirich, J., Homburger, H., and Antoni, H. (1982) Electrophysiological studies on effects of AQ-A 39 in the isolated guinea pig heart and myocardial preparations. Arzneimittelforschung 32, 730–734.
Senges, J., Rizos, I., Brachmann, J., Anders, G., Jauernig, R., Hamman, H. D., et al. (1983) Effect of nifedipine and AQ-A 39 on the sinoatrial and atrioventricular nodes of the rabbit and their antiarrhythmic action on atrioventricular nodal reentrant tachycardia. Cardiovasc. Res. 17, 132–134.
Kawada, M., Satoh, K., and Taira, N. (1984) Analyses of the cardiac action of the bradycardic agent, AQ-A 39, by use of isolated, blood-perfused dog-heart preparations. J. Pharmacol. Exp. Ther. 228, 484–490.
Dammgen, J., Kadatz, R., and Diederen, W. (1981) Cardiovascular actions of 5,6-dimethoxy-2-(3-[(alpha-(3,4-dimethoxy) phenylethyl)-methylamino] propyl) phthalimidine (AQ-A 39), a specific bradycardic agent. Arzneimittelforschung 31, 666–670.
Verdouw, P. D., Bom, H. P., and Bijleveld, R. E. (1983) Cardiovascular responses to increasing plasma concentrations of AQ-A 39 Cl, a new compound with negative chronotropic effects. Arzneimittelforschung 33, 702–706.
Hilaire, J., Broustet, J. P., Colle, J. P., and Theron, M. (1983) Cardiovascular effects of AQ-A 39 in healthy volunteers. Br. J. Clin. Pharmacol. 16, 627–631.
Siegl, P. K., Wenger, H. C., and Sweet, C. S. (1984) Comparison of cardiovascular responses to the bradycardic drugs, alinidine, AQ-A 39, and mixidine, in the anesthetized dog. J. Cardiovasc. Pharmacol. 6, 565–574.
Gross, G. J., Daemmgen, J. W. (1986) Beneficial effects of two specific bradycardic agents AQ-A39 (falipamil) and AQ-AH 208 on reversible myocardial reperfusion damage in anesthetized dogs. J. Pharmacol. Exp. Ther. 238, 422–428.
Gilfrich, H. J., Oberhoffer, M., and Witzke, J. (1987) Comparison of AQ-A 39 with propanolol and placebo in ischaemic heart disease. Eur. Heart J. 8(Suppl L), 147–151.
Roth, W., Koss, F. W., Hallinan, D., Lambe, R., and Darragh, A. (1990) Pharmacokinetics of falipamil after intravenous administration to humans. J. Pharm. Sci. 79, 415–419.
Osterrieder, W., Pelzer, D., Yang, Q. F., and Trautwein, W. (1981) The electrophysiological basis of the bradycardic action of AQA 39 on the sinoatrial node. Naunyn Schmiedebergs Arch Pharmacol. 317, 233–237.
Boucher, M., Chassaing, C., Chapuy, E., and Duchene-Marullaz, P. (1994) Chronotropic cardiac effects of falipamil in conscious dogs: Interactions with the autonomic nervous system and various ionic conductances. J. Cardiovasc. Pharmacol. 23, 569–575.
Lillie, C. and Kobinger, W. (1986) Investigations into the bradycardic effects of UL-FS 49 (1,3,4,5-tetrahydro-7,8-dimethoxy-3-[3-[[2-(3,4-dimethoxy-phenyl)ethyl]methyl-imino]propyl]-2H-3-benzazepin-2-on hydrochloride) in isolated guinea pig atria. J. Cardiovasc. Pharmacol. 8, 791–797.
Johnston, W., Vinten-Johansen, J., Tommasi, E., and Little, W. (1991) ULFS-49 causes bradycardia without decreasing right ventricular systolic and diastolic performance. J. Cardiovasc. Pharmacol. 18, 528–534.
Chen, Z. and Slinker, B. (1992) The sinus node inhibitor UL-FS 49 lacks significant inotropic effect. J. Cardiovasc. Pharmacol. 19, 264–271.
Van Woerkens, L., van der Giessen, W., and Verdouw, P. (1992) The selective bradycardic effects of zatebradine (UL-FS 49) do not adversely affect left ventricular function in conscious pigs with chronic coronary artery occlusion. Cardiovasc. Drugs Ther. 6, 59–65.
Breall, J., Watanabe, J., and Grossman, W. (1993) Effect of zatebradine on contractility, relaxation and coronary blood flow. J. Am. Coll. Cardiol. 21, 471–477.
Pistchner, H., Muno, E., Vens-Cappel, F., Schulte, B., Schlepper, M., de Moura-Sieber, V., et al. Antiischemic, antianginal, and hemodynamic effects of ULFS 49 Cl (a new heart-rate-reducing agent) in patients with angiographically proven CAD, in Sinus Node Inhibitors: A New Concept in Angina Pectoris (Hjalmarson, Å., Remme, W., eds.), Springer, New York, 1991, pp. 45–53.
Baiker, W., Czako, E., Keck, M., and Nehmiz, G. Efficacy and duration of action of three doses of zatebradine (ULFS 49 Cl) in patients with chronic angina pectoris compared to placebo, in Sinus Node Inhibitors: A New Concept in Angina Pectoris (Hjalmarson, Å., Remme, W., eds.), Springer, New York, 1991, pp. 55–63.
Franke, H., Su CAPF, Schumacher, K., and Seiberling, M. (1987) Clinical pharmacology of two specific bradycardic agents. Eur. Heart J. 8(Suppl L), 91–98.
Roth, W., Bauer, E., Heinzel, G., Cornelissen, P., van Tol, R., Jonkman, J., and Zuiderwijk, P. (1993) Zatebradine: pharmacokinetics of a novel heart-rate-lowering agent after intravenous infusion and oral administration to healthy subjects. J. Pharm. Sci. 82, 99–106.
Kobinger, W. and Lillie, C. (1984) Cardiovascular characterization of UL-FS 49, 1,3,4,5-tetrahydro-7,8-dimethoxy-3-[3-][2-(3,4-dimethoxyphenyl)ethyl] methylimino]propyl]-2H-3-benzazepin-2-on hydrochloride, a new “specific bradycardic agent”. Eur. J. Pharmacol. 104, 9–18.
Van Bogaert, P. P., Goethals, M., and Simoens, C. (1990) Use-and frequency-dependent blockade by UL-FS 49 of the if pacemaker current in sheep cardiac Purkinje fibres. Eur. J. Pharmacol. 187, 241–256.
DiFrancesco, D. (1994) Some properties of the UL-FS 49 block of the hyperpolarization-activated current (i(f)) in sino-atrial node myocytes. Pflugers Arch. 427, 64–70.
Doerr, T. and Trautwein, W. (1990) On the mechanism of the “specific bradycardic action” of the verapamil derivative UL-FS 49. Naunyn Schmiedebergs Arch Pharmacol. 341, 331–340.
Thollon, C., Cambarrat, C., Vian, J., Prost, J. F., Peglion, J. L., and Vilaine, J. P. (1994) Electrophysiological effects of S 16257, a novel sino-atrial node modulator, on rabbit and guinea-pig cardiac preparations: Comparison with UL-FS 49. Br. J. Pharmacol. 112, 37–42.
Perez, O., Gay, P., Franqueza, L., Carron, R., Valenzuela, C., Delpon, E., et al. (1995) Electromechanical effects of zatebradine on isolated guinea pig cardiac preparations. J. Cardiovasc. Pharmacol. 26, 46–54.
Raberger, G., Krumpl, G., and Schneider, W. (1987) Effects of the bradycardic agent UL-FS 49 on exercise-induced regional contractile dysfunction in dogs. Int. J. Cardiol. 14, 343–354.
Frishman, W. H., Pepine, C. J., Weiss, R. J., and Baiker, W. M. (1995) Addition of zatebradine, a direct sinus node inhibitor, provides no greater exercise tolerance benefit in patients with angina taking extended-release nifedipine: Results of a multicenter, randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled, parallel-group study. The Zatebradine Study Group. J. Am. Coll. Cardiol. 26, 305–312.
Glasser, S. P., Michie, D. D., Thadani, U., and Baiker, W. M. (1997) Effects of zatebradine (ULFS 49 CL), a sinus node inhibitor, on heart rate and exercise duration in chronic stable angina pectoris. Zatebradine Investigators. Am. J. Cardiol. 79, 1401–1405.
Valenzuela, C., Delpon, E., Franqueza, L., Gay, P., Perez, O., Tamargo, J., and Snyders, D. J. (1996) Class III antiarrhythmic effects of zatebradine. Time-, state-, use-, and voltage-dependent block of hKv1.5 channels. Circulation 94, 562–570.
Bois, P., Bescond, J., Renaudon, B., and Lenfant, J. (1996) Mode of action of bradycardic agent, S 16257, on ionic currents of rabbit sinoatrial node cells. Br. J. Pharmacol. 118, 1051–1057.
Thollon, C., Bidouard, J. P., Cambarrat, C., Lesage, L., Reure, H., Delescluse, I., et al. (1997) Stereospecific in vitro and in vivo effects of the new sinus node inhibitor (+)-S 16257. Eur. J. Pharmacol. 339, 43–51.
Simon, L., Ghaleh, B., Puybasset, L., Giudicelli, J. F., and Berdeaux, A. (1995) Coronary and hemodynamic effects of S 16257, a new bradycardic agent, in resting and exercising conscious dogs. J. Pharmacol. Exp. Ther. 275, 659–666.
Monnet, X., Ghaleh, B., Colin, P., de Curzon, O. P., Giudicelli, J. F., and Berdeaux, A. (2001) Effects of heart rate reduction with ivabradine on exercise-induced myocardial ischemia and stunning. J. Pharmacol. Exp. Ther. 299, 1133–1139.
Carre, F., Denolle, T., Lecoz, F., Violet, I., Lerebours, G., and Gandon, J. M. (1995). First intravenous phase I of S 16257, a new bradycardic agent: Effects on the maximal exercise parameters. Thérapie 50, 377.
Duffull, S. B., Chabaud, S., Nony, P., Laveille, C., Girard, P., and Aarons, L. (2000) A pharmacokinetic simulation model for ivabradine in healthy volunteers. Eur. J. Pharm. Sci. 10, 285–294.
Maesen, F. P., Smeets, J. J., van Noord, J. A., Nehmiz, G., Wald, F. D., and Cornelissen, P. J. (1994) Effect of zatebradine, a novel’ sinus node inhibitor,’ on pulmonary function compared to placebo. Pulm. Pharmacol. 7, 349–355.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2003 Humana Press Inc., Totowa, NJ
About this protocol
Cite this protocol
Saint, D.A. (2003). The Role of Cardiac Pacemaker Currents in Antiarrhythmic Drug Discovery. In: Pugsley, M.K. (eds) Cardiac Drug Development Guide. Methods in Pharmacology and Toxicology. Humana Press. https://doi.org/10.1385/1-59259-404-2:27
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1385/1-59259-404-2:27
Publisher Name: Humana Press
Print ISBN: 978-1-58829-097-7
Online ISBN: 978-1-59259-404-7
eBook Packages: Springer Protocols