Transnational Baloch Ethnicity Across the Afro-Asian Ocean Region: Prospects for Regional Maritime Connectivity

Throughout history, the nations which dominated the seas, dominated the world. Nations continue to compete for maritime power. In this context, the significance of Afro-Asian connectivity through the Indian Ocean region has always remained pivotal to the maritime nations. Given its vast prospects and potential, it is always prone to conflict as well as cooperation between the world powers. In addition, with the launch of Belt and Road Initiative (BRI), the competition has further intensified between regional and international players. Following the Chinese investments in African region, other powers are also looking towards Africa. The predominantly ethnic Baloch seafarers and fisherfolk from the coastal belt of Balochistan and Sindh have, over the centuries, spread across the littoral regions of the Indian Ocean, particularly in Gujarat, South India, the Persian Gulf, as well as East Africa. They were the main force employed by the Omanis to re-emerge as a regional (Afro-Asian) and maritime power after the Portuguese colonization of Hormuz and control of the Indo-Pacific oceans in the Sixteenth and Seventeenth centuries. This paper maps their transnational ethnic identity through the lens of a historical kaleidoscope. This connection is useful for exploring collective heritage and people-to-people connections and utilizing these connections to establish a connected future. The paper also highlights opportunities in public diplomacy and geoeconomic connectivity across the Afro-Asian region, especially the Gulf and East Africa, building upon the historic socioeconomic network, from coast to coast, of the transnational Baloch ethnicity with its roots and largest population base in Pakistan and Iran.


Introduction
The seafaring nations have been able to project their power across the globe by dominating the seas.The salience of the Indian Ocean or Afro-Asian Ocean 1 has always remained pivotal in global maritime trade.This maritime region is also prone to both conflict and cooperation between competing regional and extra-regional states.With the commencement of the Chinese Belt and Road Initiative (BRI), the competition between regional and international powers in this region has increased manifold.As China is investing in Africa, other big and middle powers, including India, are striving to reinvigorate their links with Africa, too. 2 The predominantly ethnic Baloch seafarers and fisherfolk from the coastal belt of Balochistan and Sindh have, over the centuries, spread across the littoral regions of the Indian Ocean, particularly in Gujarat, South India, the Persian Gulf, and East Africa.This article maps their transnational ethnic identity through the lens of a historical kaleidoscope, which is important and relevant to the Afro-Asian regional connectivity.This connection is useful for exploring collective heritage and people-to-people connections and utilizing these connections to establish a connected future.
Several studies highlight the Baloch migration across the Afro-Asian region over the millennia.Some interesting work has been done by Abdulaziz Yusuf Lodhi and Carina Jahani.In their article "The Baluchi of East Africa: Dynamics of Integration and Assimilation," they have described in some detail the Baloch connection with East Africa.They explain the historical connections between Oman and Africa, claiming that the colonization of Africa by Oman was a major reason for the Baloch presence in Africa.From there, they traveled to other areas of the continent. 3hani et al., in their book The Baloch and Others: Linguistic, Historical and Socio-Political Perspectives on Pluralism in Balochistan, give a comprehensive perspective of the history of Baloch transnational identity formation. 4They explored the roots of the word Baloch and described the different challenges affixed with deciphering the history of Balochistan.Describing the history of Balochistan, she links the present Baloch connections with different communities in the Middle East.They also study mundane language, music, and other cultural aspects of Baloch identity.
These studies reveal that the transnational Baloch identity has existed for centuries; however, these do not reveal to the readers anything about the dynamics of these connections across the Afro-Asian region and how these have been impacted by the post-colonial nation-state formation.There is a lack of literature on how these links can be explored to utilize them for different economic and social connections.
This study highlights the above gap by arguing that transnational Baloch ethnicity prevails across the Afro-Asian Ocean.Despite new postcolonial borders, the connection among transnational communities and identities presents opportunities in regional maritime connectivity and geoeconomics.Uncovering the historic transnational Baloch roots can be a significant factor in the Afro-Asian region's connectivity across the ocean and can open up new vistas of cooperation.This paper also highlights opportunities for a state like Pakistan to proactively tap into the hidden potential of capitalizing on ethnic and social linkages as strategic contributors in public diplomacy and geoeconomic connectivity in the Afro-Asian region.

Theoretical Perspective
This paper has used the 'Ocean as Method' approach to explore the coastal identity formation, the contemporary relevance of inter-sea social linkages, and its implications.This model presents a new way of thinking about social sciences and humanities.It explores maritime connections in social and humanistic research and proposes an alternative to national histories and area studies.It engages with the paradigms of oceanic narratives to identify connections between continents through trade, migration, economic processes, and thinking beyond the geopolitical distinctions between the Pacific, Atlantic, and Indian Oceans. 5Introduced by Isabel Hofmeyer in 2012, the model has seen valuable additions to its body of knowledge in the recent years. 6

Evolution of Transnational Baloch Identity in the Afro-Asian Region
Transnational Baloch identity took centuries to form due to their connection with different nations across the Afro-Asian Ocean.Historically, this region remained the hub of trade and connectivity across the world due to India's importance in trade and economy.The different Indian trading communities were also connected with the pre-colonial Middle East and Africa.They traveled across the Afro-Asian Ocean for economic connectivity.The Indian connection with the Gulf was established from a very early period, and the roots of this connection are especially found in archaeological records from 2300 to 100 BC.Furthermore, the symbols of these connections are visible in the modern-day museums of the Gulf countries. 7e first inscribed record of the presence of the Indian community in the Indian Ocean region is in the book of Abu Zayad Hasan written in 1916.The book describes the presence of 100 Hindu merchants at the port of Siraf in Iran.The different branches of the Indian community have remained across the Middle East, 8 where they have worked in various vocations.Their most prominent occupation was trading, for which they spread across the Afro-Asian Ocean.This established a connection with the local communities in addition to the Indian community.The connecting point among all these routes was Balochistan and the people living on its coastal belt. 9 remained a centuries-old route of trade and connectivity between different parts of the Afro-Asian Ocean and China.It was an itinerary through which West Asia connected with South Asia.Furthermore, it was a connecting hub between the Iranian Plateau and the Arabian Peninsula.It was also a route that connected South Asia and Africa to Oman and the Afro-Asian Ocean.Consequently, it remained a paramount point between the connections of different empires.There are different historical points of view related to Baloch's connection with the Middle East and Africa. 10fore the advent of the colonial powers, trade across the Afro-Asian Ocean was a very lucrative business.Badalkhan, in his article, states that Baloch ruled over Makran in the Twelfth Century and traded all across the Afro-Asian Ocean; furthermore, their trade encompassed all the regions from China to India. 11The Baloch living in the coastal belt of Makran had been trading through the sea for centuries.Their experience in the sea became a challenge to the powers that were operating in the region.Due to their presence, these powers could not provide safety through sea routes. 12ch scholarly work 13 is available on the Portuguese colonization of Hormuz region after Africa and South Indian littoral states to South East Asia, with Goa as the capital of the Estado da India.But the Baloch connection with the Ibadi sultans of Oman and their maritime and regional politics and economy is a road tread by hardly a few.A recent publication on the Gwadar enclave of Ibadi sultans and its interconnections is an invaluable contribution to the subject. 14cording to Badalkhan, Baloch's presence across the Afro-Asian Ocean was also a reason that they played a central role in trade across this region.This was the most famous route for the slave trade, too.In Pakistan, the Sheedi community is present in large numbers, and they arrived here primarily due to this slave trade.They still maintain some level of connection with their African roots. 15ave trade remained a paramount element in the Afro-Asian Ocean trade.Slave trade from East and West Africa, the Persian Gulf to South Asia persisted for centuries.Makran remained the main market for the slave trade.In terms of integration, the slaves in Balochistan mostly worked in the domestic industry and agriculture. 16There was also the emergence of a new route from Balochistan to the Arabian Peninsula; however, the British banned this slave trade in the Nineteenth Century. 17Along with the slave trade route, the strategic importance of this place also attracted the colonial powers.
The Dutch reached Hormuz in the initial part of the Seventeenth Century.In 1613, Robert Sherly, who was a representative of the East India Company, stopped at Gwadar, where the local groups attacked him.Later, he suggested to the East India Company to establish a factory in Gwadar because of its autonomous nature.Furthermore, he apprised that this region is rich in traffic.This means that the coastal region of Balochistan has remained an important part of the trade routes. 18other perspective also considers a civil war among Baloch tribes as the reason for their connection with trade.The Rinds and Lasharis fought a bloody civil war, and because of that, the former moved inland towards provinces of modern-day Pakistan, while the others moved towards the coast.There, they found people from other regions, such as East Africans, Gujaratis, and others.These people, who had migrated from inland, did not settle in one place and traveled from port to port.In this way, they made their settlements across the coastal regions. 19th trade, there was a military connection as well due to the bravery of the Baloch people; they remained an important component of military powers for centuries.
Baloch presence in the Arab world has historical roots.Baloch's connection with Arabs mainly developed due to their bravery and increasing tribal power.However, their numbers were not significant.According to S.B. Milles, the Baloch population found in Arabia in the Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries lived in a town in Oman.The Indian connection to the Arab world was found in the early period.So, it can be assumed that Baloch's relationship with the Middle East is also older than the 16th and 17th centuries.These people were on the route that linked Arab lands with India; as a result, their connection must also be old.When colonial powers arrived, they adopted centuries-old practices. 20cording to Brian Spooner, the Portuguese started this practice of hiring the Baloch soldiers, which continued even after Omanis replaced them as the regional maritime power in the Afro-Asian Ocean.However, this claim does not seem true because the Balochs remained militants for centuries.
Baloch played an important role in defending Muscat for the Portuguese.In 1650, the ruler of Muscat ended the Portuguese colonial rule.All Europeans who reached Balochistan hired Baloch militants.However, Baloch did not associate themselves with any of them.Baloch also served in the colonial army under the British. 21During the World War I (WWI), they were deployed in Muscat with the colonial army.It meant that these powers also understood the importance of Baloch soldiers in military power.
The pinnacle point of this connection was when the ruler of Kalat handed over Gwadar to an Omani prince.At the end of the Eighteenth Century, the ruler of Kalat, who had authority over the Makran region, gave control of the region to the sultan of Oman. 22In the early Nineteenth Century, this relationship with Arabs flourished and became a reason for the emergence of transnational Baloch identity.In this era, ports such as Gwadar, Bandar Abbas, and many others in east African countries were under the rule of the sultan of Oman.Traveling to different ports was free as well.As a result, there was frequent interaction among people in the Afro-Asian Ocean region.Their military strength was consequential for Oman to protect and conquer other regions. 23e Baloch, in the Sixteenth and Nineteenth Centuries, were mainly warriors.Omani forces employed them for internal defenses as well as in external expeditions.These military links are present in Oman to the present day.The Baloch did not stop in Oman and traveled with the Omani forces to other parts of Africa.They played a significant role in the conquest of Africa by Oman. 24 1821, the Omani sultan started the conquest of Africa employing the Baloch and other Indian communities.The sultan took a fleet from Iran and loaded it with the Baloch, Sindhis, and Pashtuns to conquer Africa.The majority of these forces consisted of non-Arab communities.After the conquest, the families of these forces also reached East Africa and formed their communities.It was another point of connection of Baloch with East Africa.Baloch settled around Zanzibar city, and from there, Baloch's expansion began in other areas of Africa.25 From there onwards, Baloch squadrons were sent to other areas of Africa, such as Tanganyika and Kigoma, located at the lake of Tanganyika.The Zanzibari soldiers also took part in the battle against a local ruler.The soldiers who lived in Zanzibar participated in this battle.In this way, Baloch continued to expand in Africa.This was one way of Baloch's links with Africa.Sea trade was another through which the Baloch connection emerged in East Africa.26 When Muhammad bin Hamid, aka Tipu Tib, a famous Nineteenth Century Arab trader of Zanzibar, traveled to Congo, he also took many Baloch soldiers with him.Baloch connection with East African countries developed because of the trade activities.Tipu Tib later assumed many government posts, even becoming the governor under Belgian forces.The Baloch connected with colonial forces when they arrived in East Africa.Baloch soldiers also served in many colonial forces.27 They served in Belgian forces, and before the start of the WWI, they returned to Zanzibar and Kenya.Later, Baloch soldiers served in the British forces and worked under German colonial rule. Itows that Baloch had connections with the colonizers, who occupied the Afro-Asian region.28 Although the Baloch did not remain the central point of any Afro-Asian history, their role cannot be ignored entirely.Their role as warriors remained valuable throughout the history of Afro-Asian region.Furthermore, they also served as governors on behalf of Omani rulers.In addition, according to a British historian, they remained advisors in the court of the king of Buganda.Slave trade remained a major trading activity across the Afro-Asian Ocean, and Africa was the main market from where slaves were acquired.All the African areas from Ethiopia to Madagascar have a central importance in the Afro-Asian Ocean region.29 All these facts point out that Baloch have a historical connection with the Middle East and Africa, and transnational Baloch identity is a significant phenomenon in the Afro-Asian region.Two things are common among all these historical perspectives on the evolution of transnational Baloch connections: Baloch communities' usefulness as warriors; and their importance in the sea trade.

Baloch Transnational Identity in Post-Colonial Nation States
After the emergence of the nation-state, states started focusing more on their national identities based on the elite and majority population's ethnicity (the mainstream), excluding the minority ethnic groups and converting them into subaltern status.Because of state control, this trend was more visible in the Middle East, where there was strong control of the state and minimal freedoms and human rights.Furthermore, states of the Gulf region embarked on constructing an incipient historical narrative for different purposes.The concept of a nation-state was alien to the Middle East and after liberation from colonial rule, they started constructing a sense of national identity had no historical roots. 30 Iraq, the state completely altered the history of the country's past on an unprecedented scale.In Oman, the historical events before 1970 are not acceptable in the modern discourse.Saudi Arabia also fixated on a certain type of history.Saudi Arabia became a sovereign state in 1932 after the Ottoman Empire was divided by the United Kingdom (UK) and France in 1923. 31vertheless, there is a drive to construct a sense of a national identity that did not exist before the 1930s.This concept of national identity was not very inclusive and diverse.It did not give due consequentiality to other communities that they deserved. 32These histories were more predicated on personal histories and historical preferences of the rulers rather than the histories of people who played a role in the pre-colonial era.The discovery of oil also played a role because it changed the dependence of Arabs on Baloch. 33e to this reason, there is very little work available about the subaltern communities, and they are asked not to fixate on their ethnic identity.It signifies that the nation-state was dismayed by the existence and continuity of these transnational ethnic identities.Furthermore, a lack of erudition and connection about these roots obstructs identity formation, which is not aligned with the popular national narrative about identity. 34To survive economically, it was important for them to connect themselves with emerging national identities imposed by the state and not with old identities.
Economic concerns among Baloch also led to the challenge of transnational identity.Every state has a national language.In the case of Pakistan, Urdu is the national language, and it is necessary to learn the national language to avail opportunities in different fields.
Former Prime Minister of Pakistan Benazir Bhutto 35 endeavored to impart education in the Balochi language; however, the efforts were not fruitful because learning or promoting the language did not offer many economic opportunities. 36There were, moreover, endeavors to reinvent Balochi script through Urdu adaptation of the Persio-Arabic style.The locals did not take much interest in it, for the same reason that it did not provide any opportunities for economic magnification. 37her factors also impacted the transnational Baloch identity.The most important among them is the discovery of oil. 38In the post-colonial era, the socioeconomic status and identity of the Baloch population in the Middle East were impacted by the emergence of new autonomous Gulf states.Nevertheless, the Balochs still connect with old identities.After the discovery of oil and the emergence of a strong Arab identity, the Baloch living in Arab areas feel somewhat lost.Before the discovery of oil, the Baloch had a special status in society as brave people who made good soldiers.
However, the discovery of oil and the advent of international actors impaired the significance of this feature of their identity and status.Some families consider themselves superior to Arabs and have a vigorous connection with their Baloch identity.In Oman, there are Balochs who are in high government positions.They still listen to Balochi music and speak the Balochi language; they were not influenced by post-colonial state formation. 39e Baloch, who live in the United Arab Emirates (UAE), still face a paradox; many are not full citizens.They cannot access fundamental privileges provided by a state, such as driving licenses, birth certificates for children, and many other facilities.There is also a government plan to send the Baloch, Sindhi, and other non-Arab ethnic groups to the Comoros islands.After an agreement with the Government of Comoros, the UAE has started giving them Comoros passports; however, neither they have visited nor had any association with it. 40is same trend is visible in East African countries because there are hardly any Baloch people who can speak Balochi.They have become a component of the local culture and traditions.It is imperative for them to learn the local language and assimilate themselves with the national identity to become prosperous in the country where they live.Transitional-national connections can no longer give them economic support. 41There was some revival of connections when some Balochs arrived in Iran after the 1979 revolution.The connection is emerging between old histories.Baloch, who live in Africa, are no longer working in the military.They work in myriad fields, such as medicine, engineering, and business. 42 conclusion, the post-colonial transnational identities faced challenges due to the formation of nation-states and were affected by geopolitics.Furthermore, there was a fixation on forming a single national identity and history; it ignored the prevalent heritage of Baloch transnational communities.

Impact on Economic and Political Connections in Post-Colonial Environment
When the British arrived in India, they made decisions that had long-term implications for these traditional identities.The first decision was vetoing the free movement of people.This had a drastic impact on these transnational societies. 43Furthermore, Balochistan was divided into two components under their rule.The third decision was vetoing the slave trade. 44These three steps perpetuated the transnational Baloch movement and identities in the postcolonial era.
The first impact on their political and economic relationship came when colonial powers occupied this region.Before the British Empire, the Baloch did not settle in one place and moved from coast to coast.Furthermore, they used to keep their families at home; however, the British asked them to move their families as well. 45It was the first impact they had because of the new system that was alien to them, and it hampered their movement.Thus the British Empire completely changed the old diaspora system. 46fore the British, the Afro-Asian region was full of societies that used to travel from one place to another.These societies from different places were different from inland societies that depended mainly on agriculture.In contrast, the coastal societies depended on the movement of people, goods and ideas.In fact, according to Engseng Ho, these societies were incomplete without interaction with different people.Furthermore, the key role in overcoming shortcomings was in the hands of the Gujarati and Omani rulers.Baloch always remained closely associated with the Omani rulers; therefore, it is evident that they were also associated with incomplete societies. 47They were impacted more than other communities.As a result, they had to completely change their way of life due to these issues.Colonial presence ended these societies.
Before the inception of the nation-state, there was no concept of visas and citizenship.People used to roam freely in different societies without restrictions; however, the post-colonial era brought incipient institutions for them.Before it, they did not require a passport.Now, they needed a passport to travel and move to different places.
There was no international law of the sea before the formation of the post-colonial nation-state.All these institutions transmuted the DNA of their economic structure.Furthermore, the institutional arrangement that emerged after the formation of the nation-state is also not very accommodating to these communities. 48other change made by the British Empire was the ban on the slave trade.The slave trade was among the leading trade activities of these people.The British proscribed the slave trade, and it thoroughly transmuted the dynamics of their life.The British vetoed their free movement as well as the slave trade, thereby transmuting the very substructure on which these transnational societies were standing. 49All the institutions, that were formed after WWII, were alien to them.
Another aspect emerged after the formation of the nation-state, especially in the case of countries such as Pakistan.Balochistan is the largest province in terms of geographical area; however, in terms of population, it has just five percent of the country's population.Most of the population was not educated or economically empowered; therefore, they were not much represented among the decision-makers.Those who made decisions for them had little idea about their connected identities. 50condly, to these coastal communities, the ocean remained the paramount source of economic activity.In Pakistan, the country did not fixate on the maritime economy.The policy formulation in Pakistan was mostly led by a continental mindset.Although Pakistan has a huge coastline and a paramount geostrategic location, it was until the launch of the China-Pakistan Economic Corridor (CPEC) that gave the blue economy a place in policy discourse.However, these people do not have the know-how and skills to benefit from the economic opportunities coming their way because of the blue economy policy.
The formation of the nation-state transmuted their economic and political connections.In integration, it did not equip them with the skills they required to flourish in the new nation-state model. 51Their marginalization did not just happen in Pakistan; they faced the same phenomenon in other societies.
Their importance as warriors declined in the post-colonial era.Participating in wars in different countries was also one source of their livelihood in the pre-colonial era.They fought in Oman and for other colonial forces.To Arab countries, they had great significance due to their bravery.After the formation of the nation-state and the discovery of oil, their consequentiality as warriors declined, and Arab countries no longer relied on them.
Nevertheless, the Omani army and many other countries in the Middle East still include them in their armies and law enforcement forces.Despite their inclusion in Arab enforcement agencies, they do not have the prominence they enjoyed in the pre-colonial era or before the discovery of oil.However, the discovery of oil opened new opportunities for them as well. 52e to the discovery of oil, Arab societies have fundamentally changed.It has engendered unprecedented economic activity and increased the need for manpower in oilfields.Many Baloch went to the Gulf countries to work in the oil industry.A large number of them work in different fields and are not confined to the military. 53The same has happened with the Baloch living in Africa.They have also adopted new ways of life in the post-colonial nation-states.
The formation of the nation-state has metamorphosed their identity.It has completely changed their economic and political opportunities, albeit presenting them with new economic prospects.In the future, they will likely have many economic opportunities due to the renewed geoeconomic fixation in the Afro-Asian Ocean.

Opportunities for Future
The strengths and vulnerabilities of the transnational Baloch identity can provide Pakistan with an opportunity to optimize its economic stakes and project its soft power across the Afro-Asian region.The establishment of Gwadar Port has firmly established Pakistan's potential as a gateway to Afro-Eurasian connectivity. 54The mainstreaming of these historically and ethnically connected littoral communities can play an important role in country's geoeconomic strategy in the future.These transnational linkages can be an important source of its soft power. 55btaining benefits from these Baloch transnational identities is only possible when the state realizes the importance of these communities and develops an understanding of their history, culture, and way of life, as well as the ancient economic structure and deep-rooted identity.Furthermore, it is important to understand how they were impacted by the formation of nationstates and the institutions that originated with them.
Moreover, the states should consider their concerns, and the process of development should be inclusive.It will not only help the states implement new projects but also provide avenues to develop soft power with other countries.The countries of Africa are also ready to establish these connections.
The emerging African leadership is also probing opportunities to explore diasporic connections and connect with the world.The rudimentary aim of this effort is to underscore that Africa is not a threat.Therefore, these transnational connections present great opportunities for countries to strengthen their relationship with the African continent. 56l these connections can be utilized to enhance relations in the future.This is especially true when Pakistan is renewing its focus on geoeconomics and realizing the importance of the blue economy and regional trade with an enhanced focus on the Middle East and Africa.

Conclusion
The Baloch transnational identity has been shaped over the millennia through trade and combat across the Afro-Asian region.In post-colonial times, connections between these identities have been hampered by the drawing of arbitrary borders to create new nation-states.The post-colonial geographical entities have led to the creation of unique national identities.Contemporary economic concerns have also contributed to hindering these transnational connections as well as traditional economic and political ties.The discovery of oil in the Gulf has changed the way of life for the Balochis, who live on the coastline, but it has also opened new avenues for them.The future is difficult to predict but it is bright for the brave Baloch people.