The Natural Estrogenic Compound Diarylheptanoid (D3): In Vitro Mechanisms of Action and in Vivo Uterine Responses via Estrogen Receptor α

Background: Diarylheptanoid (D3) isolated from the medicinal plant, Curcuma comosa, has estrogenic activity. Objective: We aimed to elucidate the mechanism(s) of D3 action and compare it with that of 17β-estradiol (E2) using both in vitro and in vivo uterine models. Methods: We used human uterine (Ishikawa) cells to determine the estrogenic action of D3 on the activation and nuclear translocation of estrogen receptor α (ERα). In addition, we further characterized the uterine response to D3 treatment in vivo. Results: D3 activated an estrogen responsive element (ERE) luciferase reporter through ERα, and molecular modeling suggested that D3 could be accommodated in the ERα binding pocket. Using modified ERα to assay ligand-dependent nuclear translocation, we observed D3-dependent ERα interaction and translocation. In mouse uteri, early- and late-phase estrogen-regulated gene responses were increased in D3-treated ovariectomized wild-type animals, in a manner similar to that of E2; no response was seen in ERα knockout animals. We observed a divergence in estrogen responses after D3 treatment: D3 induced robust DNA synthesis in uterine epithelial cells, linked to an increase in cell-cycle–related genes; however, no increase in uterine weight was observed 24 hr after treatment. D3 also affected uterine progesterone receptor expression patterns similar to E2. When D3 and E2 were administered together, we observed no additive or antagonistic effects of D3 on E2. Our findings suggest that D3 is a weak estrogenic agonist compound. Conclusion: D3 is a weakly acting phytoestrogen that mimics the mitogenic responses produced by E2 in an ERα-dependent manner, but it is unable to increase uterine weight or enhance or antagonize the effects of estrogen.

Estrogens play important roles in growth, differentiation, and maintenance functions of many target tissues in the female reproductive organs (Couse and Korach 1999). The biological actions of estrogen are mediated primarily through estrogen receptor (ER) α and β (Couse et al. 1997). ERs are members of the nuclear receptor family of proteins containing multiple functional domains: The A/B domain harbors activation function 1 (AF1); the DNA binding domain is located in the C region of the receptors; the hinge region (D domain) contains nuclear localization sequences (NLS) (Mader et al. 1993); and the E/F domains contain the ligand binding region and AF2 function. AF1 and AF2 portions of the protein facilitate transcriptional activity of the ER (Tora et al. 1989). Upon binding ligand, the ER is localized to the nucleus and initiates gene transcription through multiple pathways, including classical estrogen responsive element (ERE)-dependent pathways and non classical pathways (Hall et al. 2001).
The uterus is one of the most prominent estrogenic responsive target tissues, predominantly expressing ERα (Couse et al. 1997). Uterine response to estrogen is rapid and eventually leads to a dramatic increase in cell proliferation (Martin et al. 1973). However, the utero trophic responses to estrogen vary with time after hormone exposure. An early response of water imbibition in uteri is mediated through ERα; ERα knockout (αERKO) mice show no water imbibition and no increase in uterine weight after 17β-estradiol (E 2 ) treatment (Korach 1994). The genomic responses of the uterus to E 2 have been observed 0.5-96 hr after treatment (Hewitt et al. 2003;Naciff et al. 2007). Some exogenous estrogens (bisphenol A and genistein), as well as one of the endogenous estrogens (estriol), are considered weak estrogens in the uterus. Weak estrogenic compounds are less potent than E 2 ; they exhibit early uterine responses but are less effective in their abilities to cause robust subsequent uterine responses such as cellular hypertrophy and hyper plasia (Hewitt and Korach 2011). Stronger estrogens, including E 2 , initiate both early and late effects (Anderson et al. 1975). Transcripts that increase 1-2 hr after acute dosing of estrogenic compounds are components of the E 2 responsive "early gene cluster," which includes Fos and Inhbb (inhibin beta-B) (Hewitt et al. 2003). The late responses include increased and sustained RNA and protein synthesis, which lead to uterine cellular hypertrophy, DNA synthesis, and hyperplasia (Hewitt et al. 2003), as well as an alteration of progesterone receptor (PR) expression patterns (Mote et al. 2006). A second response phase is charac terized by a wave of mitosis and DNA synthesis, which occurs 16-24 hr after E 2 treatment and is correlated with the late-phase cell cycle regulators, including Aurkb (aurora kinase B) and Ccnb2 (cyclin B2) (Hewitt et al. 2003;Hewitt and Korach 2011). The early and late events reflect the utero trophic action of estrogens on uterine tissues and have been widely used to evaluate and compare potency and estrogenic or antagonistic activity of xenoestrogenic compounds.
Diarylheptanoids are phytoestrogens isolated from Curcuma comosa, a plant in the Zingiberaceae family. C. comosa has been marketed as a plant-derived dietary supplement product traditionally used in indigenous medi cine as an alternative remedy for hormone replacement therapy in menopausal women (Piyachaturawat et al. 1995). Other diaryl heptanoids are found in Curcuma and other plants in the ginger family (Keserü and Nógrádi 1995). D3 ( Figure 1A), one of the most abundant purified diaryl heptanoids from C. comosa rhizome extract (Suksamrarn et al. 2008), exerts the most potent estrogenic activity when administered for 2 or volume 121 | number 4 | April 2013 • Environmental Health Perspectives 3 consecutive days in a rodent uterine bio assay (Winuthayanon et al. 2009a(Winuthayanon et al. , 2009b. D3 has also been reported to have a vascular relaxative effect in the endothelial cells of rat aortic rings, similar to the effect of estrogen (Intapad et al. 2012). These biological actions of D3 may potentially benefit women without causing adverse side effects such as those caused by current or traditional estrogen replacement therapy (Shifren and Schiff 2010). Because of the high availability of D3 (Suksamrarn et al. 2008), the estrogenic-like bioactivities of D3, and the long-term favorable use of these plant products by daily consumption (in the form of dried fine rhizome power in capsules or as decoctions twice a day), we aimed to characterize the in vitro and in vivo mechanism(s) of action of D3, focusing on its effect in uterine cells. We evaluated the estrogenic activities of D3 on wild-type (WT) and ERα-mutant receptor in a human uterine (Ishikawa) cell line as well as evidence of D3 binding to the ERα using a new cellular assay for detecting direct interaction of D3 to the ERα. In addition, we evaluated both early and late biological responses in the mouse uterus, including any potential effect on modulating the action of E 2 . This work indicates that-in both a human uterine cell model and in the rodent uterus-D3 has weak estrogenic activity that is mediated through ERα, and that D3 does not synergize or antagonize the effects of E 2 .
Three-dimensional modeling of D3. The model for D3 was created using Insight II, version 2005 (Accelrys Inc., San Diego, CA, USA) and minimized using the Discover_3 force field. The model was manually superimposed onto the structure of trifluoromethyl phenyl vinyl estradiol (TFMPV-E 2 ) in the crystal structures of TFMPV-E 2 bound to the ligand-binding domain (LBD) of ERα [ERαLBD; Protein Data Bank (PDB) 2P15 (Nettles et al. 2007)] and E 2 bound to ERαLBD [PDB 1GWR (Wärnmark et al. 2002)]; this was followed by additional minimization of the ligand docked to the crystal structure of P215 to relieve any significant strain that may have been created from the manual modeling.
Plasmids. We used the expression plasmids for mouse pcDNA3-WT-ERα (WT ERα; Winuthayanon et al. 2009a) and pcDNA3-H2-ERα [D-domain ERα mutant; Hinge 2 (H2) ERα], the disrupted NLS mutant of ERα, and pcDNA3-H2-ERα-EGFP [D-domain ERα mutant with green fluorescent protein (GFP) fused; H2 ERα-GFP] (Burns et al. 2011). The H2 ERα has a modified nuclear localiza tion sequence, so the H2 ERα remains predominantly localized in the non nuclear compartment in the absence of ligand, and trans locates to the nucleus when bound and inter acting with the ligand (Burns et al. 2011 Confocal microscopy. HeLa cells were used for the GFP-tagged H2 ERα translocation experiment because of their high transfection efficiency. HeLa cell culture and treatment conditions were previously described by Burns et al. (2011). Briefly, HeLa cells were plated on Lab-Tek 2-well chamber slides (NUNC, Rochester, NY, USA) overnight. Cells then were transfected with 0.4 µg of H2 ERα-GFP in Dulbecco's modified Eagle medium supplemented with 10% dextrancoated charcoal-stripped fetal bovine serum for 8 hr. At 27 hr after the transfection, cells were treated for 3 hr with ethanol (vehicle), E 2 (10 nM), or D3 (50 µM). Cells were then fixed and visualized on a Zeiss 510-UV meta confocal microscope (Carl Zeiss, Inc., Thornwood, NY, USA) to determine cellular localization of H2 ERα-GFP, as previously described (Burns et al. 2011). The cellular colocalization of H2 ERα-GFP and DAPI (for nucleus) was quantified with the Multi Wavelength Cell Scoring application from MetaMorph Microscopy Automation and Image Analysis Software (version 7.7.0.0; Molecular Devices, Downington, PA, USA).
Uterine bioassay in adult WT ovariec tomized mice. Animals were handled according to NIEHS Animal Care and Use Committee guidelines and in compliance with an NIEHSapproved animal protocol. The animals were treated humanely and with regard for alleviation of suffering. Adult female C57BL/6J mice (8 weeks of age) were purchased from Charles River Laboratories (Raleigh, NC,  USA). C57BL/6J αERKO mice (Lubahn et al. 1993) were generated at Taconic Farms (Germantown, NY, USA). All mice were ovariec tomized (OVX) and held for 2 weeks to recover and eliminate endogenous ovarian steroids before the study. Mice were randomly grouped and treated for 2 or 24 hr with sesame oil [vehicle; subcutaneous (sc) administration], D3 (100 mg/kg) dissolved in 100 µL sesame oil (sc), or E 2 (10 µg/kg) dissolved in 100 µL saline [intra peritoneal (ip) administration). In some experiments, WT OVX animals were treated with both D3 (100 mg/kg) and E 2 (10 µg/kg). To measure DNA synthesis for the 24-hr time point, EdU (5-ethynyl-2´deoxyuridine; 2 mg/mL in 100 µL phosphatebuffered saline) was delivered as a second injection (ip) 2 hr prior to tissue collection (22 hr after vehicle, E 2 , or D3 injection). Animals were euthanized by CO 2 asphyxiation. Tissue collection and real-time polymerase chain reaction (PCR) were performed as described previously [Winuthayanon et al. 2010; for additional information, see Supplemental Material, pp. 3-4 (http://dx.doi. org/10.1289/ehp.1206122)].
Statistical analysis. The results are expressed as mean ± SE. The statistical difference among groups was compared using oneway analysis of variance (ANOVA) followed by Tukey's post test, or by two-way ANOVA followed by Bonferroni's posttest. Statistical significance was considered at p < 0.05.

Modeling of D3 to ERα supports agonist binding.
To model potential D3 binding to ERα, we used three-dimensional molecular docking. The structure of E 2 bound to the ERα LBD does not indicate how D3 could behave as an agonist. Because D3 is a larger molecule than E 2 , there does not appear to be enough space in the ERα binding pocket to accommodate D3 binding. However, the crystal structure of the potent ERα agonist TFMPV-E 2 bound to ERα suggests flexibility and conformational changes in the binding pocket, allowing accommodation of the bulkier TFMPV-E 2 ligand (Nettles et al. 2007), specifically the unwinding of helix 7 and the alteration of the side chains M342, M421, and F425 ( Figure 1B-C). Superimposing D3 onto TFMPV-E 2 and then minimizing the ERα binding pocket suggests that ERα could potentially accommodate D3 in an agonisttype binding mode similar to that when TFMPV-E 2 is bound ( Figure 1C).
D3 activates ERα-dependent transcription. Our previous study in liver cancer (HepG2) cell lines and molecular modeling suggested that D3 could act as an agonist with ERα (Winuthayanon et al. 2009a). We further evaluated the mechanism of D3 on ERαmediated transcriptional activity in vitro in the uterine cell model. Plasmids containing WT ERα and 3 × ERE-Luc were transiently transfected into Ishikawa cells. In the presence of WT ERα, 10 nM E 2 significantly (p < 0.001) increased luciferase activity compared with the vehicle control, and E 2 -induced transcription was fully inhibited by ICI, an ER antago nist (Figure 2A). Compared with vehicle, D3 significantly stimu lated ERE-dependent luciferase activity in a dosedependent manner, with the maximum luciferase activity at doses of 20 and 50 µM D3 (p < 0.05 and p < 0.01, respectively). The co-treatment of D3 with ICI inhibited EREdependent luciferase activity. No statistical differences were observed between E 2 -treated and D3+E 2 -treated groups, suggesting that D3 did not exhibit antagonism or alter E 2 -induced transcription.
D3 interacts with and translocates ERα to the nucleus. In the transfection studies, WT ERα is primarily located in the nucleus, even in the absence of estrogen ligand (Burns et al. 2011). We used H2 ERα as a tool to assess the ability of D3 to initiate direct ERα inter action, trans activation, and translocation as a measure of D3-ERα interaction. Both E 2 (10 nM) and D3 (50 µM) significantly induced 3 × ERE-Luc in the presence of H2 ERα ( Figure 2B; p < 0.001 and 0.01, respectively). The transactivation activity induced by either E 2 or D3 is fully inhibited by ICI; the co-treatment of D3 with E 2 did not alter the transactivation induced by E 2 .
Because WT ERα is localized in the nucleus in the absence of ligand, we were unable to illustrate that D3 induced nuclear translocation using WT ERα. Therefore, we used H2 ERα-GFP transfected into HeLa cells to test D3 binding by visualizing that D3 increases the translocation of ERα to the nucleus. The D3 treatment caused increased H2 ERα-GFP signal in the nuclei, similar to that of E 2 treatment ( Figure 2C). To illustrate that the nuclear translocation induced by D3 is ERα-dependent, we co-treated D3 with ICI. ICI treatment alone induced a punctate pattern in the cytoplasm reminiscent of protein degradation, which is known to occur for ER with ICI treatment (Dauvois et al. 1993). Nuclear translocation of H2 ERα-GFP by treatment with D3 or E 2 was disrupted by ICI co-treatment. Results indicate that D3 action was mediated through ERα interaction. Quantitated nuclear and cytoplasmic H2 ERα-GFP intensities demonstrated that E 2 and D3 treatment resulted in a significant increase in the percentage of H2 ERα-GFP intensity in the nucleus compared with vehicle treatment (p < 0.05; Figure 2D). ICI treatment-either alone or with ligandsresulted in a higher percentage of cyto plasmic H2 ER-GFP intensity. Collectively, D3 induced ERα-interaction, translocation, and nuclear occupancy; thus D3 is able to mediate ERα activity.
D3 stimulates an ERα-dependent response in the uterus. Because our results suggest that D3 utilizes ERα and induces ERE-dependent transcription in a manner similar to that of E 2 in vitro, we evaluated the transcriptional profile of D3 compared with E 2 in an in vivo uterine model using WT and αERKO animals. The physio logi cal responses of the mouse uterus to E 2 consist of both early-and late-phase events (Hewitt et al. 2003). Thus, we examined the effects of D3 on the early (2 hr) and late (24 hr) events in OVX mice. We used a D3 dose of 100 mg/kg, a dose previously shown to exert maximal uterine responses (Winuthayanon et al. 2009a). At 2 hr, the E 2 -regulated genes Fos and Inhbb were significantly up-regulated in WT mice treated with either E 2 or D3 (p < 0.01 for Fos, and p < 0.05 for Inhbb) compared with vehicle ( Figure 3A). Aurkb and Ccnb2 were also significantly up-regulated in WT uteri after E 2 or D3 treatment at 24 hr (p < 0.01) ( Figure 3B). We observed no gene activation at 2 or 24 hr in uteri from either E 2or D3-treated αERKO mice, indicating the requirement of ERα for early and late response activation by E 2 and D3.

D3 does not alter estrogen action in the uterus.
Estrogenic action of D3 in the uterus was ERα-dependent; therefore, focusing on the responses in WT animals, we evaluated uterine wet weight increase, epithelial cell proliferation, and PR expression patterns as parameters of biological responses at 24 hr. Biological responses were also assessed in the presence or absence of E 2 (10 µg/kg) to determine whether D3 would exhibit anti estrogenic activity in the uterus. As we expected, E 2 treatment significantly increased uterine wet weight (p < 0.05); however, D3 (100 mg/kg) did not ( Figure 4A). Co-treatment of D3 with E 2 neither augmented nor diminished the E 2 -induced increase in uterine wet weight. Although uterine weight was not signifi cantly induced by D3 treatment, D3 did induce uterine DNA synthesis as shown by the positive signal of EdU incorporation in uterine epithelial cells, similar to that of E 2 ( Figure 4B). D3 plus E 2 did not alter the level of DNA synthesis in uterine epithelium above the level induced by E 2 alone. To evaluate estrogen responsiveness, we evaluated PR protein expression patterns by immunohisto chemical analysis. PR was expressed in the uterine luminal and glandular epithelium in the absence of ovarian hormones (after OVX), as observed in vehicle-treated animals ( Figure 4C). In the presence of E 2 , PR expression decreased in the uterine epithelium but increased in the uterine stroma ( Figure 4C; see also Tibbetts et al. 1998). In a manner similar to E 2 , D3 decreased PR expression volume 121 | number 4 | April 2013 • Environmental Health Perspectives in the uterine epithelium and increased PR in the stroma. The PR expression pattern for D3 plus E 2 was similar to that of E 2 alone, indicating that D3 has weak estrogenic agonist activity and does not exert anti estrogenic effects on PR expression in the uterus.

Discussion
We previously showed that D3, a naturally occurring phyto estrogenic compound from C. comosa, exhibited estrogen-like activity in vitro and in vivo (Suksamrarn et al. 2008;Winuthayanon et al. 2009aWinuthayanon et al. , 2009b; however, the under lying mechanism(s) of uterine action of D3 had not been investigated. In the present study, we further characterized the mechanisms of the uterotrophic responses of D3 in human uterine cells, as well as in an animal model, for comparison with an endogenous hormone, E 2 . Certain goals of this study were to more clearly understand the mechanism of action of this compound because it shows divergent estrogenic activity, and to clarify the implications of local use of this indigenous plant in women as a health promotional supplement and as an alternative treatment for post menopausal symptoms. We focused on the transcriptional regulation mediated by ERα in a human uterine cell line and on the profile of different physiological events in uterine responsiveness during prolifera tion [early (2 hr) and late (24 hr) responses]. We also explored the possible binding mode of D3 to the ERαLBD via molecular modeling.
Historically, compounds with agonist cores and large bulky side chains have behaved as antagonists to the ER by displacing helix 12 from the agonist binding position (Brzozowski et al. 1997). Thus, because of the structural properties of TFMPV-E 2 , it was surprising when Nettles et al. (2007) reported that TFMPV-E 2 could function as a potent agonist. The crystal structure of TFMPV-E 2 bound to ERα revealed plasticity in the ERαLBD, whereby the trifluoro methyl phenylvinyl side chain could be accommodated by the unwinding and displacement of helix 7 and the rearrange ment of a few side chains (Nettles et al. 2007). Binding in this manner increased the volume of the binding pocket by 40% while maintaining helix 12 in a position consistent with agonist binding. Interestingly, the structure of D3 can be reasonably superimposed onto the structure of TFMPV-E 2 bound to the ERαLBD ( Figure 1B). The structure of D3 can be manipulated such that both phenyl groups super impose with the phenol and phenyl groups of TFMPV-E 2 . Binding in this orien ta tion also positions D3's hydroxyl oxygen in a similar location to that of the 17β-hydroxyl of E 2 . Although it is unclear whether this is indeed D3's mode of binding to the ERαLBD, this similiarity does support the possibility that D3 can bind in an orientation consistent with agonist binding and activity. In addition to our modeling, our previous findings using reporter assays in HepG2 cells indicated that the AF2 domain within the ERαLBD is crucial for D3 transcriptional activity, as mutations in the AF2 domain blunted D3 mediated transcriptional responses (Winuthayanon et al. 2009b). Estrogens exert their regulatory potential on gene expression in target tissues by different mechanisms. Several compounds are able to interact with both ERα and ERβ (Kuiper et al. 1998). The uterus is one of the most estrogenresponsive reproductive tissues that predominantly expresses ERα (Couse et al. 1997;Nilsson et al. 2001). The ligand-ER complex in the nucleus inter acts with both ERE or non-ERE (tethered) sequences (Couse and Korach 1999). We previously reported that D3 transactivated genes in an ERα/ERE-dependent manner in human liver cells, with no tethering activity (Winuthayanon et al. 2009a). In the present study we further investigated the mechanisms of action of D3 in uterine cells by introducing WT or H2 ERα in Ishikawa cells. In Ishikawa cells, D3 activated an ERα/ ERE-mediated luciferase reporter. However, to obtain a detectable biological response, D3 must be adminis tered at a very high dose compared to E 2 . Traditional 3 H[E 2 ] ligand binding assays using uterine cytosolic preparations were unable to demonstrate D3 binding to ERα [see Supplemental Material, Figure S1 (http:// dx.doi.org/10.1289/ehp.1206122)]. This may be due to the very low binding affinity of D3 to ERα, as shown by the high dose required for both reporter gene activity and uterine bio assay, or it may result from use of the crude cytosolic preparation containing binding proteins  volume 121 | number 4 | April 2013 • Environmental Health Perspectives that may bind non specifically to D3, preventing interaction with ERα. Therefore, we used H2 ERα, a mutant that exhibits hormonedependent trans location from the cytoplasm into the nucleus in the presence of ligand (Burns et al. 2011). In the present study, we observed that D3 treatment induced H2 ERα transactivation in the luciferase reporter assay and in H2 ERα-GFP translocation into the nucleus. Both findings suggest that D3 interacts directly with ERα. We also illustrated that H2 ERα could be a useful and sensitive experimental tool for compounds that exerted weak estrogenic activity and that could not be tested by the conventional ligand binding assay. Endocrine-disrupting compounds, such as bisphenol A (BPA) and 2,2-bis(p-hydroxyphenyl)-1,1,1-trichloro ethane (HPTE), are considered "weak estrogens," exhibiting early-phase estrogenic responses in the uterus, but late responses are diminished after 24 hr (Hewitt and Korach 2011). Similarly, we found that D3 stimulated the expression of earlyphase genes (Fos and Inhbb) in a fashion similar to that of E 2 . In contrast to BPA or HPTE, D3 also sustained its effect on the induction of late-phase genes (Aurkb and Ccnb2). The transcriptional responses by D3 were mediated through ERα as shown by the lack of gene stimulation in αERKO uteri. In addition to the genomic responses, D3 clearly stimulated DNA synthesis selectively in uterine luminal and glandular epithelium, concomitant with the up-regulation of cell cycle-related genes, such as Aurkb and Ccnb2 (at 24 hr). However, uterine wet weight did not significantly increase with D3 treatment at 24 hr. One explanation for this discrepancy between the tissue response and gene activation is that a repetitive treatment with weak estrogens is required to induce the increase in uterine weight, but changes in gene expression may indicate stimulation of tissues leading to tissue-response end points. In previous studies, uterine weight was significantly increased after treatment with D3 for 2 and 3 consecutive days in immature OVX rats (Winuthayanon et al. 2009b) and adult OVX mice (Winuthayanon et al. 2009a), respectively. However, the significant uterine weight increase induced by D3 was still lower than that induced by E 2 , which is consistent with the property of a weak estrogen. Thus, repeated treatment with D3 is required for the weight-increase response; however, uterine genomic responses of D3 can be observed 2 and 24 hr after a single injection. In addition, the gene expression pattern at 24 hr was sustained by D3 treatment, supporting its potential potency. We also found that, in the presence of the endogenous estrogen E 2 , D3 did not alter the PR expression pattern induced by E 2 . The dose administered in vivo in the present study was 100 mg/kg (2.5 mg per mouse). From pharmaco kinetic studies in rats, the bioavailability of D3 via oral administration is approximately 24.01% (Su et al. 2012). If mice administered D3 by ip injection bioavailability similar to that in rats, D3 at 100 mg/kg would have a circulating level of D3 of approxi mately 132.3 µM. This suggests that the dose of D3 used in the in vivo experiments would be similar to the dose used in vitro. In summary, D3 acts as a weak estrogen through ERα, as shown in both in vitro and in vivo biological assays.

Conclusions
We found that the biological actions of D3 were mediated by its transcriptional activity as an agonist for ERα through an EREdependent reporter in uterine cells, and that, in mouse uterus, D3 produces uterine responses in both the early and late phases, in a manner similar to that of E 2 , without inter fering with the effect of endogenous estrogens. Surprisingly, we also observed that D3 had a unique chemical structure that could be accommodated in the binding pocket of ERα. Our three-dimensional modeling may shed light on how other non steroidal endocrinedisrupting compounds exert estrogenic activity through ERα. D3 shows promise as a naturally isolated weak estrogenic compound that might be used as an alternative therapy for symptoms in women that result from estrogen withdrawal. However, either in vitro or in vivo, D3 must be administered frequently at extremely high doses to produce maximal biological responses that approach-but never equal-E 2 responses. The identification and charac teriza tion of D3's actions on molecu lar targets advance our basic knowledge of the phyto estrogen D3's actions in uterine cells in the presence of the endogenous hormone E 2 . In addition, this study suggests that although D3 acted as a weak agonist, it did not interfere or antagonize the action of E 2 in the in vivo model, which may suggest the use of this plant in ovarian cycling women. Although diarylheptanoids are naturally occurring compounds abundant in spices and vege tables, the possibility of D3's proliferative DNA synthesis activity and increased risk for cancer should not be overlooked during long-term consumption.