Unfolding the Practical Knowledge of an Expert Strength and Conditioning Coach

To define the professional knowledge base used in practice, the purpose of this study was to reveal the content of practical knowledge of an expert strength and conditioning coach. A qualitative case study design was used. The participating coach met a list of criteria typically associated with expert coaches. Data collection included observations, interviews, and document analyses. Following the data analysis, ten major knowledge categories emerged, which were separated into the Foundational Practical Knowledge and Applied Practical Knowledge clusters. It appeared that the participant's set of practical knowledge was structured in several layers and was only partially built on the Foundational Disciplinary Knowledge originating from formal education. Analysis suggested that most aspects of the participant's practical knowledge were developed through field experience, real-life practices, and other professionals. The present study suggests that coaching educational programs should be expanded and modified to reflect all aspects of knowledge used in practice.


INTRODUCTION
The general purpose of coaching is to improve athletes' physical, mental and emotional performance, and to prepare them for the sport competition. While the job of the coach is quite complex [1], the knowledge of the coach is a key factor affecting the athletes' preparation [2]. Sadly, coach education programs are either non-existent or often do not provide a thorough knowledge base for practical coaching [3]. Coaching manuals often present the knowledge basis for coaching differently from the practical coaching expertise [4]. Experiential knowledge and informal education in coaching appear to have a special significance in the development of expertise [5]. Consequently, there is a need to define the knowledge base necessary for effective coaching [2,3].
The competence of the best coaches is mostly studied by using models of expertise [6,7]. Coaches who emerge over others with their talent, knowledge, enthusiasm, preciseness, and perseverance are often labeled experts. Expert coaches have been shown to possess extensive knowledge [8], a variety of procedural skills in transferring that knowledge [9], and vast amounts of information about their sport and athletes [10,11]. The excellence of expert coaches is achieved by their extensive knowledge and skills that usually accumulate over at least ten years of experience and dedicated practice [9,12].
As theory is not always the precursor of practice [13], defining the essential knowledge for effective coaching should be done from a practical perspective. Focus must be placed on coaches' knowledge that is used in practice, rather than their theoretical or propositional knowledge. Educational philosophers distinguish these two forms of knowledge and argue that practical "knowing-how" is different from theoretical "knowing-that" [13][14][15]. Knowing-how represents practical knowledge, involves the actual disposition to be able to do things with intelligence, and is an expression of rational practice [14]. This knowledge is usually not conscious and is used to comprehend situations and cope with difficulties [16]. Also, this form of knowledge is acquired through action and is highly dependent on the individual's coaching experience [17].
Coaching strength and conditioning is a relatively young and constantly growing profession. Strength training and conditioning is an integral part of optimal athletic preparation to achieve adequate performance and to prevent injury [18]. The strength and conditioning coach cooperates with the sport head coach and works directly with athletes to develop their physical abilities [19]. It has been suggested that strength and conditioning coaches utilize a broad scientific knowledge base [20] and their knowledge cuts across several domains [21]. While authors argued that the knowledge of strength and conditioning coaches is generally based on various scientific areas, such as anatomy, exercise physiology, biomechanics, nutrition, and sport psychology [21,22], a relative paucity appears in the literature as strength and conditioning coaches' practical knowledge is not well defined.
Through such observation, the knowledge base for effective coaching can be identified [23] and coaches' shortcomings can be improved through well-rounded education programs [24]. The analysis of practical knowledge in strength and conditioning may lead to the improvement of coaching education programs and an overall improvement of the field. Therefore, to define the professional knowledge base for coaching strength and conditioning, the purpose of this study was to reveal the content of practical knowledge of an expert strength and conditioning coach.

RESEARCH DESIGN
To facilitate a hypothesis-generating research, this study followed a qualitative case study research design. The case study design was selected to gain an in-depth understanding of an expert strength and conditioning coach's practical knowledge from his own perspective and to establish a theoretical framework for practical knowledge used generally in coaching strength and conditioning. It was perceived that a complex phenomenon such as an expert coach's practical knowledge could be better explored and described by the special framework of a case study design.

RECRUITMENT OF THE PARTICIPANT
After obtaining approval from the Human Subjects Office for research, the search began for potential participants. This search was assisted by a list of strength and conditioning professionals working in the southeastern part of the United States, provided by the National Strength and Conditioning Association (NSCA) Georgia State Director, as well as various Internet sources. The researcher evaluated each potential participant by the available information regarding their educational and professional background, certifications, and work experience. After identifying and locating potential study participants, the researcher contacted them via mail or e-mail, provided a brief explanation about the study, and requested an enclosed background questionnaire to be filled out and returned.
After receiving responses from the potential participants, the researcher ranked them according to the selection criteria. The list of criteria was based on previous studies examining expert coaches [16,17,25] and included: i) at least 10 years of experience as a head strength and conditioning coach; ii) coaching athletes who compete at the National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) Division I or at professional level; iii) Certified Strength and Conditioning Specialist (CSCS) designation obtained from the NSCA, or Strength and Conditioning Coach Certified (SCCC) designation obtained from the Collegiate Strength and Conditioning Coaches association (CSCCa); iv) formal recognition of coaching achievements from a professional organization (awards, distinctive ranks); and v) recommended by the NSCA Georgia State Director. The highest ranked coach was contacted by phone, further details were provided about the study and an appointment was requested. During this meeting, the expert coach agreed to participate in the study and signed the Informed Consent Form.

THE PARTICIPANT
The participant of the study was a male head strength and conditioning coach working at a major NCAA Division I institution in a large metropolitan area in the southeastern region of the United States. At the time of data collection, the participant had been coaching strength and conditioning for 16 years, with 12 years as a head strength and conditioning coach. The participant received a bachelor's degree in physical education and later a master's in exercise science. During the master's program, the participant was a strength and conditioning graduate assistant at a Division I institution and after graduation became an assistant strength and conditioning coach at another NCAA Division I institution. As a head strength and conditioning coach, the participant spent two years at a Division II institution, and 10 years at the observed Division I institution.
At the time of the study, the participant oversaw the entire strength and conditioning program, including approximately 400 athletes in 15 varsity sports. The participant worked directly with approximately 120 athletes participating in the American football program. As the head strength and conditioning coach, the participant was also in charge of guiding and overseeing the work of six assistant coaches. The participant was a member of both the NSCA and CSCCa, was highly regarded by the NSCA Georgia State Director, held proper credentials, was formerly awarded as the 2000 NSCA College Strength and Conditioning Professional of the Year, and was also awarded with the Master Strength and Conditioning Coach (MSCC) designation by the CSCCa.

DATA COLLECTION
It was perceived that the exploration of practical knowledge, a multi-dimensional concept, is only possible by the application of triangulation, the use of multiple instruments. Thus three major strategies were used for collecting data, including observations, interviews, and document analyses. Using three data sources was also necessary to enhance the credibility of the findings and reduce the likelihood of misinterpretation.

Observations
The initial period of the data collection was dominated by observations. Two types of observations were conducted: i) direct observations, when the researcher passively observed the participant in action; and ii) participating observations, when the researcher physically participated in the designated training sessions led by the participant. The combination of these observation techniques provided the researcher better insights of the participant's thinking process, training philosophy, professional decisions, and beliefs. The researcher conducted direct observations of the participant for a total of 28 training sessions and 48 hours of other related work (i.e., planning, office work, meetings, etc.). In addition, the researcher participated in five training sessions and a full-day training camp conducted by the participant.
Observations were planned ahead of time and recorded systematically by observation notes. The researcher recorded the main episodes of the observed sessions, athletes' responses to coaching directions, the participant's behavior, decisions, moves, actions, conversations with athletes and colleagues, and documented exact words of feedback or instructions as well. Furthermore, the researcher sought the logic and rationale behind the participant's actions and decisions. In addition, questions were collected during observations related to real-life training situations, which were later used in the subsequent interviews to refer to reality-based practices of coaching. Reoccurring events observed repeatedly were recorded as such. Observation notes were typed and systematically organized immediately following the observation episodes, thus managing the data set.

Interviews
Eight 30-to 60-minute formal research interviews were conducted with the participant and numerous short conversations were carried out during the observations. All interviews were audiotaped and later transcribed. Furthermore, five interviews were carried out with the participant's colleagues and one interview with a group of athletes. In these interviews, the researcher tactically asked questions, so that the conversation partners provided substantial information about the participant's practical knowledge without knowing the purpose of the research. In addition to these formal interviews, numerous short conversations took place with the participant, his colleagues and the athletes. These short conversations were written down verbatim.
The topics of the eight structured interviews with the participant were designed before the data collection process. First a list of questions was brainstormed and later organized into interview categories. During the initial stages of data collection, while observations were dominant, the researcher refined the interview questions and restructured the interview categories. Therefore, interview questions became more narrowly focused and more real-life context related. Questions were carefully worded, so that the researcher appeared genuinely naïve about the topic and allowed the participant to provide original and fresh commentary.

Documents
The third source of data was the various documents collected, referring to a range of written or typed materials. The collection of such documents helped in augmenting evidence from other sources, verifying emerging hypotheses, creating new categories, and offering a historical understanding. Furthermore, documents provided supplemental information about the participant's practical knowledge and were used for triangulation purposes. Collected documents included various forms of training plans, such as periodized season plans, mesoand microcycle plans, and single training-session plans. In addition, handouts and educational booklets provided to athletes were collected. Such handouts included take-home workout plans for athletes, written instructions and technique demonstrations with figures, as well as motivational messages.

Termination of Data Collection
Data collection took place over a sixteen-week period, with two to three full day visits weekly. As suggested by qualitative researchers, the theoretical data saturation criterion [26] was taken into consideration. When the researcher noticed that additional data from the different sources did not offer new answers to the research question or overlapped with already obtained information, data collection was terminated. By the end of the sixteen weeks, the researcher noticed emerging regularities in data. This time period appeared sufficient to become familiar with the setting and the participant's routines, as well as understanding the participant's behavior, professional actions and instructional processes. The summary of data collection is presented in Table 1.

DATA ANALYSIS
As the researcher became more familiar with the participant and the setting, underlying patterns and conceptual categories emerged. Data collection and analyses were performed simultaneously. Shortly after recording, each interview was transcribed; and handwritten data from observations were typed. For data confirmation purposes, the participant received a copy of the interview transcripts and observation notes, and was asked to read and confirm. Following the confirmation of all data, emergent insights were noted, initial codes were highlighted, and all data were filed for further analysis.
As insights and tentative hypotheses emerged, the researcher refined and further developed the pre-established interview questions, and organized questions in separate categories. Data analysis started with organizing all data. Once data from various sources were separated and organized into chronological order, data from interview transcripts, observation notes and collected documents were all coded. After the initial coding the researcher refined the codes and, for interview and observation data, typed those into the text. Following this, the coded, typed, and printed data chunks were organized into main themes. Here, the researcher placed print-outs containing data fragments into pertinent piles. These piles were later refined with further repeated analyses. This process resulted in emerging conceptual categories and later in main themes. Once clearly distinguishable themes emerged, the researcher reviewed and (if needed) reorganized data pieces, ensuring that all pieces were placed under the appropriate theme or, in some occasions, under more than one theme.

QUALITY OF THE STUDY
Care toward the quality of the study was practiced throughout the entire data collection and data analysis process. During the initial data analysis, initial emerging findings were triangulated with data from other sources. In attempt to avoid the influence of biased views on the direction of the findings and conclusions, the researcher took into account three commonly used tests to establish the quality of a case study research design. Qualitative researchers often refer to these as trustworthiness, credibility, and consistency. Strategies to ensure trustworthiness and credibility included: i) triangulation (using all the relevant evidence from multiple data sources and multiple methods to confirm the emerging findings); ii) member checks (taking interview transcripts, observation notes and initial interpretations back to the participant to check for accuracy and validity); iii) long-term or repeated observations at the research site; iv) inclusion of all rival interpretations in the analysis; v) bringing the researcher's participant-related expertise to the study; and vi) peer examination (asking colleagues with participant-related expertise to comment on the findings as they emerge).
The application of triangulation and an independent peer audit also improved the consistency of the findings. To further improve the credibility of the findings, additional techniques included a prolonged data-gathering, collection of referential materials, and the development of a thick description. Furthermore, the researcher developed a presentable database by transcribing all interviews, typing handwritten observation notes, and collecting all analyses in a file. Finally, the researcher attempted to improve the generalizability of the study findings by searching for commonalities in strength and conditioning coaches' work, and by rationalizing how typical this case was.

RESULTS
The analysis of the collected data resulted in the emergence of ten major knowledge categories. Further analysis revealed that these ten knowledge categories can be distinctly separated into two main clusters. The participant showed evidence of possessing a form of practical knowledge that was used as a basis in the coaching practice and was foundational in carrying out the everyday tasks. Termed as Foundational Practical Knowledge, this knowledge cluster contained six knowledge categories, with each containing three to six knowledge themes. Knowledge categories constituting the Foundational Practical Knowledge cluster were: (a) knowledge of the field of strength and conditioning and coaching in the field, (b) facility and equipment, (c) exercises and techniques, (d) injuries, (e) athletes, and (f) planning. These six knowledge categories appeared to be the foundation for four other knowledge categories, each with two to eight knowledge themes. These knowledge categories were mainly used in action and constituted the Applied Practical Knowledge cluster, to include the knowledge of: (a) plan modification, (b) supervision, (c) coaching pedagogical strategies, and (d) professional development. Figures 1 and 2   The participant's knowledge of facility and equipment represented the second category of the Foundational Practical Knowledge cluster. His knowledge of how to structure and create an ideal strength and conditioning facility, what equipment to include and how to organize those was relevant in this category. He considered numerous factors of this issue, such as the ideal facility and set of equipment to achieve the goal of the strength and conditioning program, safety concerns, as well as comfort and attractiveness cogitations. Moreover, knowing how his gym was structured appeared to be a critical factor in his work, as it greatly affected his gym management routines. Here, he based his knowledge on the available number and type of equipment and the location of those. Knowing the equipment also included an understanding of the purpose and functioning of these various devices, alternative ways of using those to better meet program goals, and proper ways and practices of maintaining them.
The third category of the Foundational Practical Knowledge cluster referred to the participant's knowledge of exercises and techniques. This category included the participant's broad repertoire of exercises, which was a collection of drills, movements and techniques in strength training, plyometrics, speed and agility training, stretching, cardiovascular improvement, power and explosiveness development, balance training, and others. Related to his arsenal of exercises, the participant also had clear concepts of methods to expand that repertoire, whether to figure out new exercises on his own or learn about them from other sources. His understanding of the rational application of exercises was a major component of this knowledge category, along with his comprehension of the purpose and usefulness of exercises. Here, the participant took into account the sport-specific needs, the physiological effects of the exercises, as well as the biomechanical characteristics of those. Furthermore, the way he categorized the exercises in his repertoire was a determinant of his work. The final component of this category pertained to the participant's knowledge of the correct execution of techniques and methods of teaching them. The participant found it important to teach new techniques and exercises in progression, thus the athletes were gradually exposed to more difficult exercises, which were built upon previously learned and mastered movements. During this process, the participant carefully considered the athletes' physical ability for progression and always ensured safety.
The participant's knowledge of injuries constituted the fourth category of this cluster. A great portion of his actions was designed to prevent the occurrence of injuries. Injury prevention was related to avoiding accidents and injuries while participating in the strength and conditioning program, as well as the positive effects of a well-rounded training program on preventing injuries in the given sport. The participant advocated for flexibility training, ensured safety during training sessions, and planned carefully to guarantee appropriate recovery time. Despite these prevention techniques, injuries occurred occasionally; thus a part of the participant's knowledge dealt with treating injuries. Actions taken for injury treatment included collaboration with the athletic trainers, modifying workout plans and exercises for the injured athletes, and applying proper stretching. In addition, the concept of overtraining was also related to this knowledge category. The participant used careful planning to avoid overtraining his athletes. Moreover, he regularly observed his athletes and frequently tested them, thus recognizing the slightest deviations from the normal athletic performance development curve. His knowledge in this category, including both injury and overtraining prevention and treatment, was based on his knowledge of human anatomy and physiology obtained through formal education.
The fifth category of the Foundational Practical Knowledge cluster was related to the athletes in general. The participant categorized his athletes from physiological, psychological and attitude perspectives and assessed the athletes' improvement as related to these categories. The participant had a broad knowledge of his athletes including their background, sport-and strength and conditioning-related performance level, playing positions, experience level, and their response to his motivational techniques. The participant took deliberate actions to get to know his athletes from such a diverse perspective. He often had discussions with colleagues working with the athletes, he looked for opportunities to talk to them on a one-on-one basis, recorded their performance in the weight room and all their test results, and regularly observed them during sport practice. He also documented information on his athletes' behavior, habits, reactions and attitude.
The sixth category of the participant's Foundational Practical Knowledge cluster was his knowledge of planning. A central component of this category was determined by his knowledge and comprehension of the planning process and the personal-professional beliefs of how the program periodization had to be composed. In creating a periodized program plan, he first determined the major goals and objectives of the strength and conditioning program and the various phases within the program. Both the initial season planning, and the later ongoing unit and session planning were focused on these predetermined goals. He also established gym scheduling practices and routines for creating the athletes' workout schedules, and frequently experimented with new planning ideas.
An important aspect of his knowledge on planning was his hypothesis that planning had to be an ongoing process, as the different unit plans had to be refined as the season proceeded, and the training session plans had to be created shortly before the sessions took place. This way, demonstrating flexibility in planning, the participant was able to consider the most influencing factors, such as fatigue and injuries of athletes, facility management constraints, and weather conditions. Another aspect of the participant's knowledge of planning was his consideration of testing. Conducting valid and reliable performance tests regularly was perceived vital in further program planning and modification. Testing results were used both to assess athletes' physical improvement and to evaluate program accomplishments.
Overall, the participant's Foundational Practical Knowledge cluster contained knowledge in diverse aspects of coaching strength and conditioning. It appeared that some elements of this knowledge cluster were based on his Foundational Disciplinary Knowledge, including participant matter knowledge of anatomy, physiology, psychology, biomechanics, kinesiology, basic knowledge of periodization, program design and testing, basic facility management methods, and knowledge of training principles. Based on this "textbook" knowledge, the participant developed his own Foundational Practical Knowledge base, which was practically oriented, adjusted to his personality and coaching philosophy, and adjusted to the environment.

THE APPLIED PRACTICAL KNOWLEDGE CLUSTER
The Applied Practical Knowledge cluster was a collection of knowledge categories that emerged from the everyday coaching actions. One dominant knowledge category in this cluster was related to plan modification, as this practice appeared quite frequently in the participant's work. Based on his vast knowledge of planning, the participant frequently revised and adjusted the originally created program plan to the emerging conditions. Here, his knowledge of program goals was crucial, as it guided him in making appropriate modifications. The participant had to make spontaneous plan modifications on the scene on a regular basis, in response to factors such as the flow of the session, athletes' performance, injuries, attitudes, weather conditions, gym management, or training time.
The participant's knowledge of supervision was another element of the Applied Practical Knowledge cluster. This category was a collection of various coaching cognitive practices that were frequently used in action. Observation of athletes during the training sessions was one of his most prevalent action-based cognitive practices. In order to effectively observe his athletes, the participant consistently and intentionally moved around the gym, and observed the athletes' technical execution. After a quick cognitive technique analysis, the participant generally provided assistance, feedback, or correction. The participant partly assisted his athletes with technique correction purposes, but he also provided assistance when an athlete needed help with a movement or exercise.
When providing feedback, the participant applied corrective verbal feedback most dominantly. The participant also provided skill cues or schematic demonstrations for corrective feedback purposes. Technique correction generally started with a fast technique analysis, when the participant compared the observed technique to the ideal technique. At this point, he considered whether the flaw in the given athlete's execution needed correction, ensuring safety aspects and taking into account the appropriate workout flow. The participant perceived that correction was necessary when ensuring safety or reinforcing the ideal technique. Another aspect of his supervision practices was his ability to identify athletes' improper exercise-execution or poor technique. Here, based on his vast athletic and coaching experience, he anticipated possible ways of improper execution of the various exercises. When observing poor technique, the participant took selective supervisory actions and thus warranted the athletes' safety and ensured their physical development.
The third category of the Applied Practical Knowledge cluster was the knowledge of diverse coaching pedagogical practices, including various beliefs, knowledge types and deliberate practices. A primary pedagogical belief of the participant was the creation of a relaxed training atmosphere in the gym. The participant approached all athletes with a friendly and easygoing attitude, thus promoted enjoyment in training. At the same time, however, the participant remained firm and consistent with the athletes and set a number of rules applied during the training sessions. These rules were created to control athletes' attendance in the training sessions, to inspire them for working hard, and to ensure that they met set requirements.
A portion of this knowledge category was the participant's knowledge of instructional practices and routines. For example, simplification of task explanation and gym management instructions was one of the most dominant instructional strategies used. When simplifying instructions, the participant used brief orders, employing previously taught terms that athletes already understood. Thus, he was able to save time and effort in giving out tasks or managing groups. Related to task announcements, the participant tended to apply a variety of skill cues and schematic demonstrations as part of the simplified instructions. Furthermore, the participant also considered the athletes' theoretical comprehension of tasks and the purpose of those tasks. Here, he provided verbal explanations regarding the reasons of performing certain exercises, answered athletes' questions, and drew imaginary sportspecific situations to better describe the rationale of executing those exercises.
The motivation of athletes is generally important in any sport-specific training, but it was found particularly imperative in the participant's training, both as part of the athletes' general mental preparation and as encouragement for hard work during training sessions. Establishing a range of motivational strategies and motivating athletes in multiple ways was a prevalent action for the participant. As motivational strategies the participant frequently encouraged, pushed and challenged the athletes, applied game-like situations, implemented competitions and an award system, and stated examples. These game-like situations and small competitions used a simulation-strategy to motivate the athletes. The participant believed in treating all athletes and all groups equally, and provided motivation equally to everyone. The participant's knowledge of motivation was found to be in correlation with his coaching philosophy, where he expected hard work from the athletes and he was willing to work hard for them. He spent most of his time in the gym, and interacted with athletes whenever possible.
Another aspect of the participant's applied pedagogical strategies was his knowledge of gym management. As the head strength and conditioning coach, he was responsible for gym scheduling practices. As the strength coach for the football team, he was also responsible for scheduling all athletes in the team, creating smaller workout groups, scheduling those groups and also assigning all the assistant coaches to deal with other groups. During the training sessions, the participant demonstrated fluent and fast transitions resulting from the careful planning, simplified gym management instructions, and used athletes to move equipment.
The final aspect of the participant's knowledge pertinent to this category was his awareness of the workout. The participant knew the exact workout plans by heart through his careful and thorough planning process, and also by trying out the planned training sessions. He carefully kept track of the sessions and instructed his athletes without any training plan notes. This practice assisted him to memorize the content of the workout sessions and provided him an exact idea of the athletes' pains and struggles experienced during training. Through this strategy, the participant aimed to learn about his own training sessions and placed himself in the athletes' situation. In combination with his former athletic experiences, this practice made the participant better understand the workout scenarios and the reactions from athletes. The participant heavily relied on his past and recent workout experiences and on his thorough knowledge of his athletes.
The last category of the participant's Applied Practical Knowledge cluster was his beliefs of and quest for professional development. Professional development had a central role in the participant's work and was part of the practically oriented set of understandings that directed his work. He constantly sought to update his knowledge base and used various sources to gain new information. In addition, he often experimented with new training aspects, developed new exercises and utilized new inventions in his periodized plans. He found it essential to regularly attend conferences, coaching clinics and workshops, and to meet other coaches to exchange ideas. Also, he placed a great emphasis on self-reflection and on evaluating his own work as he frequently reviewed his previous workout and unit plans.

CONCLUSION
This study aimed to examine and categorize an expert strength and conditioning coach's practical knowledge. By revealing the content of the knowledge that an effective and experienced coach uses in practice, other coaches may attain a better comprehension of the necessary knowledge base for effective coaching and may be able to identify their own shortcomings. Furthermore, this in-depth examination of an elite coach's knowledge could enhance the development and standards of educational programs designed for strength and conditioning coaches. Consequently, it may positively influence the overall improvement of the field.
Although the purpose of this study was not to identify the structure of the participant's practical knowledge, collected data indicated that the participant's overall knowledge base was structured in several layers. The very basis of this knowledge set was his disciplinary knowledge, from which some of the practical knowledge categories originated and emerged. This disciplinary knowledge was based on formal education and textbook learning. A shortcoming of the present study was that the exact content of this knowledge base was not examined; however, it is reasonable to assume that in accordance with previous suggestions [21,22] disciplinary knowledge categories such as anatomy, physiology, psychology, biomechanics, kinesiology, basic knowledge of periodization, program design and testing, basic facility management methods, and knowledge of exercises and training principles were part of the participant's disciplinary knowledge. This knowledge did not appear in a pure form in the participant's everyday practices, instead it was shaped, modified, formatted, and specialized to the current practices and environment. Therefore, some of this disciplinary knowledge base became practical.
The disciplinary knowledge, together with a great portion of knowledge that originated from practice and experience in coaching strength and conditioning constituted the participant's Foundational Practical Knowledge. This cluster formed the basis for the top layer of the participant's knowledge set, the Applied Practical Knowledge cluster. This knowledge cluster included knowledge that was not learned formally, but developed throughout the years of practice. Also, the participant's own personality shaped the content of this knowledge cluster, as he specifically created, borrowed, modified and applied certain knowledge types that he believed were important in coaching. The entire knowledge set compiling his Foundational Disciplinary Knowledge, Foundational Practical Knowledge and Applied Practical Knowledge was focused on the goal of strength and conditioning, the goal of the participant's work. Figure 3 schematically presents these layers of knowledge.
It has been previously recognized that an immense and versatile knowledge is needed to coach strength and conditioning effectively [21]. The present study attempted to identify the practical knowledge base of an expert coach and therefore establish a theoretical framework for practical knowledge used generally in coaching strength and conditioning. The findings of this hypothesis-generating research may facilitate further research to fully explore all aspects of practical knowledge necessary for effective coaching. Consequently, professional associations such as the National Strength and Conditioning Association (NSCA) and the Collegiate Strength and Conditioning Coaches association (CSCCa) may modify their certification preparation programs to accurately reflect on such a knowledge base. Currently, both associations have certification programs that are heavily based on disciplinary knowledge. Findings of the current study indicated that the expert strength and conditioning coach's practical knowledge was just partly based on disciplinary knowledge, which was attained from formal education. Several important aspects of his practical knowledge (for example his knowledge of athletes or knowledge of plan modification) were obtained from experience, real-life practices, or other professionals. Other major knowledge aspects (i.e., knowledge of supervision, coaching instructional strategies) were pedagogy related knowledge categories, which in this participant's case were also obtained through real-life practices.
The importance of obtaining knowledge relevant to real-life practices must be recognized when preparing future strength and conditioning coaches. Both the NSCA and the CSCCa advocate for internship and practicum programs in preparation to the respective strength and conditioning certifications. However, these internship programs are generally unregulated; therefore, the extent of experience that prospective coaches gain will differ case by case and will greatly depend on the given environment, strength and conditioning program, and most importantly the mentoring senior strength and conditioning coach.
Educational programs preparing future strength and conditioning coaches should take into consideration all aspects of practical knowledge used in the field, and thus should modify internship or practicum programs to ensure the exposition to relevant coaching experiences. In addition, pedagogical aspects of coaching must be added to coaching preparation programs. Often, basic and disciplinary aspects of coaching are the full extent of coaching education programs, while the pedagogical needs of the coaching profession are neglected. Therefore, based on the findings of the current study, it is suggested that material related to sport pedagogy should be included in coaching educational programs, thus also preparing prospective coaches for the pedagogical demands of this profession.