Causal relationships between baseball‑team participation and academic performance among students

revealed that the academic performance of students participating in baseball teams significantly

of student involvement, this study also addresses the academic performance of baseball players.
Engaging in physical activity has a positive impact on academic achievement, which might be attributable to enhancements in brain and cognitive functioning.Academic results may therefore also benefit positively.(Chaddock et al., 2011;Chang & Lin, 2010;Wang & Tsai, 2011).When considering studies that have found a positive correlation between being a student athlete and academic grades, it is significant to know that these findings can be influenced by various factors, including sample selection, assessment methods, and the definition of academic achievement (Franklin, 2006;Grimit, 2014;Lo & Tsai, 2011a, 2011b).
Scholars generally observe that student athletes tend to have lower academic achievement due to the challenges they face in balancing the demands of their academic coursework and athletic pursuits (Chi, 2000;Hsieh, 2003aHsieh, , 2003b;;O'Neill et al., 2013;Stambulova et al., 2015).Time and energy constraints often make it difficult for these students to strike an optimal balance between their studies and athletic training (Ho, 2018;Huang et al., 2016).Furthermore, their originally inadequate academic foundation may lead them to prioritize sports over academic pursuits (Ho & Du, 2001;Hsieh, 2000).
Previous research on the academic performance of student athletes or varsity teams in Taiwan primarily has relied on qualitative analyses, such as observation, semistructured interviews, and literature analysis (Huang, 2011;Huang et al., 2014;Hung, 2011).There have been insufficient quantitative statistical analyses to validate the impact of student participation in sports varsity teams on academic performance, as well as few studies comparing the effects of sports and nonsports varsity teams on academic performance.The extent to which sports participation influences the academic performance of students remains unclear, and hence this formed the primary focus of this study.
Previous quantitative research has established that there is a significant correlation between the academic performance of students and their family backgrounds.Recent studies of the cultural capital theory of Bourdieu (1984) and the social capital theory of Coleman (1988) have further attested to the influential role of family background in academic achievement via intervening variables delineated by those theories (Burkam et al., 2004;Chen & Hwang, 2011a, 2011b;Cheng & Powell, 2007;Hsiao & Hwang, 2015).The present study aimed to comprehensively determine the impact of sports participation on academic performance by applying the cultural capital theory of Bourdieu and the financial and social capital theories of Coleman.Given the prevailing popularity of baseball among students in Taitung County, Taiwan, the analysis of sports participation in the present study deliberately focused on ninth-grade students affiliated with baseball teams as the subjects.
According to the literature, baseball-team students have to participate in training sessions before and after classes, on holidays, and during winter and summer breaks, as well as leaving school to participate in competitions, with all these factors affecting academic achievement (Huang, 2011;Yang et al., 2014).We therefore hypothesized that ninth-grade students of the baseball teams in Taitung County would not perform well on the Basic Competence Test (BCT), a national standardized assessment administered to ninth-grade students in Taiwan once a year.The BCT score serves as an application criterion for admissions to senior high schools.Therefore, this study was designed to elucidate the strength of this relationship.On the other hand, approximately 35.7% of students in Taitung County are indigenous, ranking first among all counties and cities in Taiwan (MOI, 2017).Indigenous students tend to exhibit poorer academic performance (CIP, 2014;Hsiao & Hwang, 2015;Li & Hwang, 2016) while being overrepresented on baseball teams (Huang & Chiu, 2012;Lin, 2010;Lin & Hung, 2013).This could be interpreted as meaning that indigenous students are responsible for the poorer academic performance among baseball-team students.It also suggests that the lower academic performance of baseball team students can be attributed to either their initially lower academic performance or their involvement in the baseball team.Previous studies have not validated these assumptions, so the present study was designed to clarify them.
This study addressed the aforementioned uncertainties by employing data collected from an education longitudinal survey of secondary school students.The dataset comprised questionnaires answered by 2614 eighth-grade students and their parents.These data were combined with the 2006 BCT scores of the students, which were mean scores in the senior-high-school entrance examination conducted during ninth grade.By comparing the results of students in the baseball team with those of non-baseball-team students, this study aimed to determine how BCT scores are impacted by the backgrounds of students on the baseball team, including their ethnicity, gender, family socioeconomic status (SES), and family structure.Specifically, the study aimed to determine how the abovementioned background factors influence BCT scores by considering culture, finance, and society as intervening variables that represent three facets of family capital.Another aim was to ascertain whether indigenous students are the primary contributors to the lower BCT scores observed among students on the baseball teams.Furthermore, it aimed to determine whether the subpar BCT scores of students in the baseball team can be attributed either to their originally poorer academic performance in school or to their involvement in the baseball team.
Among research that has examined the positive association between athletic participation and academic performance, the investigation by Grimit (2014) of 67 college student athletes at South Dakota State University is particularly noteworthy.That study revealed a positive correlation between sports participation and academic outcomes.However, selection bias might have been present since the study relied on a relatively small sample of 67 individuals from a total pool of 400 student athletes.Caution is also warranted when interpreting those findings since the self-reported GPA scores may have been affected by overestimation.
Moreover, Franklin (2006) conducted an analysis utilizing data from the National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA), which indicated that student-athletes exhibit higher graduation rates than the general undergraduate population.Nonetheless, the difference in graduation rate between student athletes and nonathletes was a mere 2%, at 62% and 60%, respectively; this small difference was insignificant, especially in the absence of statistical interpretation.Besides, it is crucial to recognize that a graduation rate merely represents the attainment rate of the minimum requirements for graduation and does not necessarily reflect exceptional academic achievement.
Regarding the decline in academic performance among student athletes, Adler and Adler (1985, 1987, 1991) performed a seminal 4-year qualitative observational study involving 40 college male basketball players.The findings revealed that despite most student athletes expressing optimism about obtaining a degree at the start of college, their academic progress was impeded by various factors, including the physical and mental fatigue resulting from rigorous training, competition participation, and the accompanying demands of competitions themselves.Furthermore, the social isolation experienced by student athletes from their nonathlete peers, reduced available study time, and the high-pressure environment created by coaches all contributed to their academic decline.Lindo et al. 's (2012) investigated the relationship between collegiate football participation and the academic performance of nonathlete students.The study encompassed a sample of 29,737 nonathlete students who were affiliated with the football team at the University of Oregon during 1999-2007.After employing statistical controls, the study exhibited a significant reduction in the grades of male students due to the success of the football teams.This reduction was attributed to the increased engagement in social activities such as partying, elevated alcohol consumption, and reduced study time, which were detrimental to their academic performance.
Extensive research performed in Taiwan has consistently indicated that students involved in sports as student athletes or in varsity teams generally demonstrate lower academic performance (Huang et al., 2014;Hung, 2011).This phenomenon can be attributed to the challenges in balancing academic demands with engaging in longterm, high-intensity training to achieve athletic excellence (Brown et al., 2000;Chen & Chi, 2015;Grimit, 2014;Huang, 2011).The coexistence of the two identities of the student and athlete represents a fundamental reason for this academic underperformance, while time allocation and energy distribution further exacerbate the situation.Student athletes devote a significant portion of their schedules to athletic training (Lally & Kerr, 2005;Miller & Kerr, 2002), which reduces their opportunities for studying, completing assignments, and reviewing homework, which ultimately impact their academic achievement (Huang et al., 2016;Hung, 2011).Physical stamina is also finite, and students may struggle to maintain focus and attentiveness in the classroom after expending energy on enhancing their athletic skills (Chou, 2002;Ho, 2018).Studies have also shown that academic results tend to decline when the athlete aspect of being a student athlete is emphasized (Bimper, 2014;Riciputi & Erdal, 2017).

Research on cultural capital and academic performance
The concept of refined cultural capital of Bourdieu pertains to the mastery of upperclass culture by individuals, including artistic taste, behaviors, and manner of speech, etc., often demonstrated through activities such as museum visits, opera attendance, classical music appreciation, and engagement with literary works (Hwang & Chen, 2005, p. 84).Students typically acquire cultural capital through passive inheritance or intentional transmission from their parents (Cheung & Andersen, 2003;Lareau, 2003).These refined cultural practices become integrated into the knowledge, language, and behavior of the students, forming what Bourdieu refers to as "habitus" (Dumais, 2002).As schools impart knowledge and cultivate a preference for upper-class culture, teachers who hold such cultural capital in esteem tend to favor students who exhibit these refined cultural habits.Such students are often perceived as more intelligent and sophisticated and receive greater care and encouragement, which in turn positively impact their academic achievement (Hwang & Chen, 2005).Many international studies have demonstrated a positive association between refined cultural capital and educational achievement (Jaeger, 2011;Marteleto & Andrade, 2014).However, research on this topic in Taiwan has produced inconclusive findings.Most studies that examined the relationship between cultural capital and standardized tests displayed no significant associations (Chen & Hwang, 2011a, 2011b;Wu, 2007), with the exception of those by Lin (2012) and Su and Hwang (2009), which presented positive relationships.
Refined cultural activities generally do not significantly impact academic achievement in Taiwan.In Taitung County, however, a special phenomenon is observed, where the presence of detrimental cultural habits such as smoking, drinking, and chewing betel nuts have significant negative effects on academic achievement (Lin, 2012;Su & Hwang, 2009).It is possible that unfavorable cultural capital, such as involvement in punk culture, creates a negative impression on teachers and exerts an adverse influence, thereby hindering the academic achievement of the student (DiMaggio & Mohr, 1985, p. 1256).Moreover, student involvement in obsessive leisure activities such as temple fairs, the Eight Police Officers (a folk temple activity in Taiwan), and street dance also tends to leave a negative impression among teachers.Participation in such activities has been found to negatively affect academic achievement (Lin, 2012;Su & Hwang, 2009).

Research on financial capital and academic achievement
According to Coleman (1988, p. 109), financial capital can be defined as a tangible resource that includes household wealth and income that enables individuals to achieve their goals.The availability of financial capital empowers parents to provide educational resources to enhance the learning of their children.These resources contribute to the creation of an optimal learning environment and expand the array of learning opportunities for their children, which consequently boosts their overall educational attainment (Chen & De Graaf et al., 2000;Huang, 2011;Lin, 2012;Lynch & Moran, 2006;Stewart, 2006).
Various methods are employed to assess household financial capital, including evaluating the financial value of automobiles, residential properties, audio equipment, etc. Besides, the presence of educational resources within the home, such as personal desks, designated study areas, reference books, and encyclopedias, can serve as indicators of financial capital and help to gauge its impact on educational outcomes.Extensive research corroborates the notion that households with greater financial capital tend to foster more-conducive reading environments for students, resulting in superior learning outcomes (De Graaf et al., 2000;Stewart, 2006).
Furthermore, parents allocate financial capital to enrolling their children in afterschool tutoring programs with the aim of enhancing academic performance, gaining admission to superior educational institutions, and furthering educational attainment.This strategic utilization of financial capital by parents effectively augments the human capital of their children (Hwang & Chen, 2005;Lin & Hwang, 2009).Notably, providing after-school tuition necessitates supplementary funding and the allocation of spare time, thereby establishing a close association with family SES.Children in families with a higher SES are generally more likely to engage in after-school tutoring (Chen & Huang, 2011;Lin, 2012;Lin et al., 2015;Liu et al., 2017;Rhy & Kang, 2013).

Research on social capital and academic results
The social capital theory of Coleman (1988) pertains to the interconnected social relationships that assist individuals in their pursuit of desired objectives.The possession of extensive social networks is advantageous to attaining these goals.Social capital within the familial context manifests as parents investing in education for their children and the corresponding expectations held by the parents.Such parental investments and expectations can be regarded as the social capital endowed upon their children, thereby constituting a crucial familial resource for their academic accomplishments.The improved SES of the family therefore increases the level of parental educational investment and expectations on their student children.As a result, the student acquires higher levels of social capital, culminating in superior achievement (Lin, 2012;Rothon et al., 2012).
Parental input in education encompasses various forms of parental involvement that have proven beneficial to learning by children.Parental engagement fosters motivation through parent-child and parent-school interactions, which ultimately facilitates academic success (Catsambis, 2001;Hill et al., 2004).A comprehensive meta-analysis of 50 studies conducted by Hill and Tyson (2009) found a positive correlation between academic outcomes, with the exception of a negative correlation between parental homework support, and the involvement of parents in education.However, other studies have found no significant association between parental involvement and academic achievement (Balli et al., 1997;Bronstein et al., 2005).
Furthermore, parental education expectations encompass the aspirations and goals that parents hold for the future education of their children.These expectations may include desired achievements, academic qualifications, and attendance (Glick & White, 2004;Goldenberg et al., 2001).They reflect parental values regarding education that are often internalized by children through parent-child communication.Consequently, higher parental education expectations contribute to augmenting family social capital.Most relevant research has supported the notion that elevated parental education expectations is positively correlated with academic achievements, standardized test scores, and extended commitment to education (Hsieh, 2003a(Hsieh, , 2003b;;Jeynes, 2005Jeynes, , 2007;;Pearce, 2006).

Relationships between background and education achievement
Studies conducted both in Taiwan and other countries have identified several family background factors as influential elements that impact academic achievement.Notably, students from more-advantaged family backgrounds tend to demonstrate superior academic achievement (Chien, 2010;Justic et al., 2006;Orr, 2003).
Research into the effects of ethnicity has shown that both black and Latino students tend to underperform compared with white students (Goldsmith, 2004;Orr, 2003).This disparity can be attributed to the higher prevalence of a low SES and singleparent families among black and Latino students.Similarly, indigenous students in Taiwan are disadvantaged due to their nonmainstream cultural and linguistic backgrounds, which results in lower academic performance (Chang, 2014;Chen et al., 2006aChen et al., , 2006b)).Moreover, disadvantaged family backgrounds, including reduced access to after-school tutoring opportunities, greater engagement in unhealthy hobbies, and lower parental education expectations and investments, further contribute to the academic disparity between indigenous and Han students (Lee & Hwang, 2011;Wu, 2007).
Regarding gender differences, studies have indicated that the superior outcomes among girls in junior high school can be attributed to their greater participation in refined cultural activities and less engagement in unhealthy hobbies and obsessive leisure activities compared with boys (Chao & Chao, 2012).
Furthermore, parental education, paternal occupations, and family income collectively constitute family SES, which is a crucial indicator for examining the relationships between family background and academic achievement.Previous research has consistently confirmed the family SES to positively impact individual academic achievement (Lareau, 2002;Lin & Hwang, 2008;Lin & Wu, 2007;Orr, 2003).Families with higher SES generally have a higher capacity and willingness to provide their children with diverse educational resources, which in turn positively influences their academic achievement (Israel et al., 2001;Lin & Hwang, 2009;Su & Hwang, 2009).
Concerning family structure, children from two-parent households generally exhibit better academic achievement than those from single-parent households.This can be attributed to the presence of parental companionship, care, and encouragement, as well as the accumulation of greater social capital, with all these factors helping to improve academic achievements.Conversely, children in single-parent or intergenerational-parenting families often lack sufficient social capital due to parental absence in the home, which negatively impacts their academic achievement (Lee & Hwang, 2011;Raley et al., 2005).

Structure and hypotheses
The primary aim of this study was to determine the causal mechanisms that influence the BCT scores of ninth-grade students who are members of a baseball team.The research framework was developed based on an extensive analysis of the pertinent literature.Within this framework, the independent variable was baseball-team students, and the control group comprised non-baseball-team students.Control variables encompassed various background factors such as ethnicity, gender, parental education, paternal occupations, family income, and family structure.The eighth-grade results of the baseball-team students also served as a control variable.The study also examined three intervening variables associated with family capital: (1) cultural capital, which encompassed unhealthy hobbies, refined cultural activities, and obsessive leisure activities, (2) financial capital, which included the after-school tutoring hours dedicated to academic subjects and the number of household educational equipment items, and (3) social capital, which involved parental participation in education and the expectations therein.On the other hand, the dependent variable was the cumulative score achieved in subjects such as Chinese, English, mathematics, natural sciences, and social studies (see Fig. 1).

Research hypotheses
Drawing upon the literature review and research framework, this study established pertinent research hypotheses.

Impacts of three intervening variables on BCT scores
The first set of research hypotheses addressed the impacts of three intervening variables on BCT scores: Hypothesis 1.1: Greater involvement in refined cultural activities is associated with higher BCT scores.Hypothesis 1.2: Greater engagement in unhealthy hobbies is associated with lower BCT scores.Hypothesis 1.3: Greater engagement in obsessive leisure activities is associated with lower BCT scores.Hypothesis 1.4: A larger number of household educational equipment items is associated with higher BCT scores.Hypothesis 1.5:More hours spent on after-school tutoring is associated with higher BCT scores.Hypothesis 1.6: Higher parental education expectations are associated with higher BCT scores.

Impact of background on intervening variables
The second set of research hypotheses addressed the impacts of background on the intervening variables: Hypothesis 2.1: A higher family SES is associated with greater involvement in refined cultural activities.Hypothesis 2.2: A higher family SES is associated with a higher level of parental education expectations.Hypothesis 2.3: A higher family SES is associated with more hours spent on afterschool tutoring.Hypothesis 2.4: The prevalence of engaging in unhealthy hobbies is higher for indigenous than for Han Chinese students.Hypothesis 2.5: The education expectations are lower for indigenous than for Han Chinese parents.

Hypotheses related to the impact of baseball-team participation on BCT scores
Previous research has indicated that many students involved in baseball teams participate in demanding training regimens that extend beyond regular class hours, encompassing holidays, winter and summer breaks, and even necessitating leave from school for games.These extensive commitments have been found to influence the academic performance of the students.It was therefore hypothesized that students involved in baseball teams will exhibit lower academic performance than their noninvolved counterparts, as reflected in their BCT scores.
Hypothesis 3.1: BCT scores are lower for baseball-team students than for non-baseball-team students.

Measurement of variables
This study aimed to determine the causal mechanisms that influence the BCT scores among students who are members of baseball teams.Regression analysis was employed in this investigation, and utilized dummy variables to compare the performances of baseball-team and non-baseball-team students, with the latter serving as the control group.

Background variables
The background variables comprised ethnicity, gender, family SES, family structure, and eighth-grade results, which are described in detail as follows: 1. Ethnicity: Participants were classified into indigenous and Han Chinese students, with the latter serving as the control group.2. Gender: Participants were categorized into male and female students, with the latter designated as the control group.3. Family SES was assessed using three factors: 4. Parental education: Parental education levels were classified into four groups: elementary school or below, junior high school, senior or vocational high school, and college or above.The control group consisted of parents with a senior-or vocationalhigh-school education.5. Paternal occupations: The study employed the categorization of occupations proposed by Hwang (2003) in the New Occupational Prestige and Socioeconomic Scores for Taiwan, which includes the following categories: (a) upper-white-collar employ-ees, (b) white-collar employees, (c) clerks, (d) laborers, (e) agriculture, forestry, fishery, and animal husbandry personnel, and (f ) unemployed.The control group comprised laborers.6. Family income: Family income was divided into four groups based on the average monthly income of the entire family: NT$ 0-20,000, NT$ 20,001-50,000, NT$ 50,001-100,000, and > NT$ 100,000.The control group consisted of families in the income range of NT$ 20,001-50,000.7. Family Structure: This was categorized into four distinct groups based on household composition.Complete families were characterized by children who resided with both parents.Single-parent families consisted of children who lived with only one parent.Intergenerational-parenting families were defined as children who lived with their grandparents but not their parents.Kinship care families comprised children who lived with relatives other than their parents or grandparents.The control group comprised complete families.8. Eighth-Grade Results: This refers to the mean score obtained by students on standardized tests in the subjects of Chinese, English, and mathematics.Each subject had a maximum score of 100, for a total maximum test score of 300.

Intervening variables
The intervening variables comprised the following three facets of family capital: 1. Cultural Capital: Cultural capital encompassed the various activities that students encounter or participate in during their daily lives, including both refined and obsessive leisure activities.Principal-components analysis (PCA) was employed to identify significant factors within the construct, with a threshold of λ > 1 being applied.Three factors were identified in this analysis that collectively accounted for 55.62% of the observed variance.An oblimin rotation was subsequently performed to facilitate interpretation.The first factor which consisted of going to cybercafé, smoking, drinking, and chewing betel nuts was labeled as unhealthy hobbies, the second which encompassed going to the movies, bookstore browsing, listening to classical music or traditional Chinese music, going to a concert, or watching dramas as refined cultural activities, and the third which comprised temple fairs, the Eight Police Officers, and street dance as obsessive leisure activities.2. Financial Capital: The variable of after-school tutoring hours within the financialcapital domain pertained to the number of hours each week that a student dedicates to attending tutoring classes.The household educational equipment variable encompassed personal desks, stereo equipment, computers, etc.The cumulative number of various household items ranged from zero to eight.3. Social Capital: The social capital construct in this study encompassed an examination of how students perceived the active involvement of their parents in their education and learning endeavors, as well as the parental education expectations.PCA was initially employed to identify factors for which λ > 1 to analyze the topic of parental participation.Two factors were subsequently extracted using the oblimin rotation, and collectively accounted for 66.08% of the variance.The first factor which encompassed accompanying me to study, teaching me with homework, talking about school with me, buying me outside readings, and awarding my test scores was labeled as parental coursework tutoring and the second which consisted of teaching me surfing the Internet and teaching me utilizing word processing, painting, and self-learning software as parental computer science tutoring.Furthermore, in the context of parental expectations, PCA was again employed to extract factors with λ > 1.Two factors were identified using the oblimin rotation that explained 89.55% of the variance.The first factor which comprised paternal education expectations and maternal education expectations was labeled as parental education expectations and the second which encompassed paternal achievement expectations and maternal achievement expectations as parental achievement expectations.

Dependent variable
The BCT scores of ninth-grade students in Taitung County in 2006 specifically referred to the results obtained in their senior-high-school entrance examination.The BCT scores covered five subjects: Chinese, English, mathematics, natural sciences, and social studies.Each subject had a maximum score of 60, for a cumulative BCT sum score of 300.

Association between background variables and BCT scores according to mean analysis
According to Table 1, the baseball-team students had a mean score of 68.52 among the five subjects, which was 47.50 points (significantly) lower than the score for the nonbaseball-team students of 116.02.Similarly, the indigenous students scored 83.54, which was 45.29 points (significantly) lower than that of Han Chinese students.Regarding gender, the mean score of 110.01 for males was 9.99 points lower than that for females.The corresponding η values for these relationships were 0.138, 0.342, and 0.081, respectively.Regarding the family SES, higher paternal and maternal education levels were associated with higher student achievement, with significantly different η values of 0.432 and 0.445, respectively.Paternal occupation also exhibited a similar trend of higher occupational levels corresponding to higher scores, with a significant η value of 0.388.Regarding family income, higher income was associated with higher performance, and a more-complete family structure was linked to higher achievement, with significant η values of 0.382 and 0.180, respectively.

Analysis of correlated percentages and means of intervening and background variables
Pertaining to the backgrounds in Table 2, significant differences were found between baseball-team and non-baseball-team students in ethnicity, gender, and maternal education.
Regarding ethnicity, only 24.7% of baseball-team students identified as Han Chinese, while the remaining 75.3% were indigenous students.In contrast, 69.5% and only 30.5% of the non-baseball-team students identified as Han Chinese and indigenous, respectively.The corresponding Cramer's V, a measure of association, was 0.160.
Concerning gender, it was noteworthy that all of the baseball-team students were male.In comparison, 52.5% of the non-baseball-team students were male, and 47.5% were female.Cramer's V for this variable was 0.158.
The analysis also examined maternal education as an intervening variable.Among baseball-team students, 35.2% had mothers with an elementary-school education or below, which was 18.7% higher than the corresponding value for non-baseball-team students.In terms of junior-high-school education, 29.6% of baseball-team students had mothers in this category, slightly higher than the 28.5% of non-baseball-team

Table 1 Mean analysis of the correlation between baseball-team background variables and BCT scores
The number of individuals in each category is lower than in  students.Notably, 33.3% of baseball-team students had mothers with a senior-or vocational-high-school education, which was slightly lower than the 42.7% of nonbaseball-team students.Moreover, only 1.9% of baseball-team students had mothers with a college education or above, in stark contrast to the 12.3% of non-baseball-team students.The corresponding Cramer's V for maternal education was 0.085.Regarding intervening variables, the analysis indicated that there was no significant difference between baseball-team and non-baseball-team students in unhealthy hobbies, after-school tutoring hours, or social capital.However, the score for baseballteam students in refined cultural activities was − 0.38 (the cultural and social capital scores of the intervening variables were factor scores obtained from the factor analysis, with a mean of 0 and an SD of 1), which was significantly lower than the score of 0.01 for non-baseball-team students.The analysis further examined the obsessive leisure activities of the students, for which the baseball-team students scored − 0.23, which was significantly higher than that of 0.01 for non-baseball-team students.The corresponding η values were 0.065 and 0.038, respectively.
The average number of household educational equipment items for baseball-team students was 2.68, which was significantly lower than the 3.32 for non-baseball-team students.The corresponding η value was 0.063.Several important insights could be obtained from the above-mentioned findings.Firstly, the mean BCT score of baseball-team students was observed to be 47.5 points lower than that of non-baseball-team students.Secondly, all participants in the baseball team were male students, most (75%) of the baseball-team students belonged to the indigenous population with maternal education predominantly at the elementary-school level or below, and only 1% had mothers who had a college education or higher.Thirdly, baseball-team students possessed less-refined cultural capital, greater involvement in obsessive leisure activities compared with their non-baseball-team peers, as well as a lower availability of household educational equipment.
It was crucial to examine the academic records and standardized test scores of the baseball-team and non-baseball-team students in order to address the aforementioned disparity in BCT scores between them.This investigation aimed to determine whether the lower BCT score of baseball-team students could be attributed to their initially lower academic performance.The study retrospectively analyzed the standardized test results of these students in Chinese, English, and mathematics during their eighth-grade year to elucidate this.Each subject was evaluated on a scale of 100, with a maximum score of 300.
Table 3 indicates that the mean score for Chinese, English, and mathematics obtained by baseball-team students during their eighth-grade year was 112.49.This mean score was significantly lower than that of 155.99 achieved by non-baseball-team students.The η value was 0.112, indicating a significant difference from their non-baseball-team counterparts during the eighth-grade year.
Statistical regression analysis was subsequently conducted to further investigate the potential impact of this lower academic performance on the subsequent lower BCT scores of the ninth-grade baseball-team students.This analysis incorporated the eighthgrade academic results of the students as a control variable, thereby providing a clearer understanding of whether the previous academic performance was a factor contributing to the observed lower BCT scores among baseball-team students during their ninthgrade year.

Influence of background and intervening variables on BCT scores among baseball-team students
Table 4 lists the results of a regression analysis of the factors contributing to the lower BCT scores among baseball-team students.The analysis aimed to determine whether the observed lower BCT scores were a result of their participation in the team or could be attributed to their initially poorer academic results.Furthermore, the study examined Table 3 Analysis of the Eighth-Grade Results of Baseball-Team and Non-Baseball-Team Students Data are mean (SD) values *p < 0.05

Sum η
Total   the background variables that impacted the BCT scores of baseball-team students and explored the specific forms of capital through which these background factors influenced BCT scores.

Regression analysis of BCT scores among baseball-team students
Referring to Table 4, Mode 1 showed the disparity of BCT scores between baseball-team and non-baseball-team students without controlling any variables.Mode 2 displayed the changed disparity of BCT scores of two groups after adding ethnicity as the control variables.Mode 3 presented altered disparity of BCT scores after adding the other background variables as the control variables to Mode 2. Mode 4 exhibited new disparity of BCT scores after adding three facets of family capital as the control variables to Mode 3. Mode 5 presented different disparity of BCT scores after adding the controlled variables of eighth-grade academic records to Mode 3. Mode 6 demonstrated the disparity of BCT scores after adding three facets of family capital as the controlled variable to Mode 5.The detailed explanation provided can be outlined as follows: Mode 1 revealed a significant difference in the BCT scores between baseball-team and non-baseball-team students, with baseball-team students scoring 47.50 points lower (b = − 47.50).However, the R 2 value of only 0.019 indicated that the explained variance was relatively small.In Mode 2, after ethnicity was added as a control variable, the BCT score of indigenous students was significantly lower than that of Han Chinese students by 43.65 points.The disparity in performance between baseball-team and non-baseballteam students therefore decreased to 27.01 points, corresponding a reduction of nearly 50%, with a slight increase in R 2 to 0.122.These findings suggested that ethnicity differences partially contributed to the disparity in BCT scores between baseball-team and non-baseball-team students.
In Mode 3, additional control variables were introduced to further investigate the factors that influenced the ethnicity-related performance disparity and the overall disparity in BCT scores between baseball-team and non-baseball-team students.The results indicated that despite a narrowed disparity, indigenous students still exhibited BCT scores significantly lower than those of Han Chinese students.Furthermore, the performance of males remained significantly poorer than that of females.Moreover, students with fathers who had a junior-high-school education presented significantly lower achievement than those with fathers who had a senior-or vocational-high-school education, while students with fathers who had a college degree or higher exhibited significantly higher academic scores compared with those with fathers who had a senior-or vocational-high-school education.
Regarding maternal education, students with mothers who had a junior-highschool education or below had significantly lower academic scores than those with mothers who had a senior-or vocational-high-school education.Conversely, students with mothers who had a college degree or higher achieved significantly higher academic scores than those with mothers who had a senior-or vocational-high-school education.Students with fathers employed as upper-whitecollar or white-collar workers also demonstrated significantly better academic results than those with fathers employed as laborers.Students from families with a household income of NT$ 0-20,000 also exhibited significantly lower achievement than those from families with an income of NT$ 20,001-50,000.Students from intergenerational-parenting families also performed significantly poorer than those from complete families.
When considering the above controlled variables, the disparity in BCT scores between baseball-team and non-baseball-team students was further reduced to 20.06 points, representing a decrease of approximately 25% in the gap.The R 2 value increased to 0.305.Briefly, Mode 3 provides evidence that the disparity in BCT scores between baseball-team and non-baseball-team students can be partially attributed to ethnicity differences and other background variables.
Mode 4 added the intervening variables as the control variables, the significant impact of backgrounds inclusive of gender, paternal education at a junior-highschool level, paternal occupation of upper-white-collar employees, family income of NT$ 0-20,000, and intergenerational parenting on BCT scores turned into insignificant.There was also a decline in significant b values for factors, namely ethnicity, paternal education (college or above), maternal education, and paternal occupation (upper-white-collar employees).The three facets of family capital had negative impacts on BCT scores: unhealthy hobbies (β = − 0.05), obsessive leisure activities (0.15), and parental computer science tutoring (− 0.06).In contrast, refined cultural activities (0.07), after-school tutoring hours (0.10), parental education expectations (0.19), and parental achievement expectations (0.23) had positive impacts on BCT scores.The disparity between the BCT scores of the baseball-team and nonbaseball-team students was therefore 17.18 points, and the overall R 2 increased to 0.495.In Mode 4, the impact of background on BCT scores was mostly decreased or insignificant; nonetheless, the impact of intervening variables on BCT scores was mostly positive, which indicated that the influences of the background variables may be partly replaced by the intervening variables.To determine how the background variables of baseball-team students affected the BCT score through the intervening variables (three facets of family capital), the regression analysis described in the next section assessed the impact of the independent variables on the intervening ones (see Table 5).
Mode 5, which incorporated background variables and eighth-grade academic records as control variables, revealed a significant positive impact of the latter on BCT scores.However, BCT score was 12.78 points lower for baseball-team students than non-baseball-team students, with R 2 increasing to 0.633.Mode 6, which encompassed Mode 5 and the three facets of family capital as control variables, further demonstrated that eighth-grade academic records had a significant positive effect on BCT scores.Despite this, the BCT score was still 13.01 points lower for baseball-team students than for non-baseball-team students, with R 2 significantly increasing to 0.694.These findings were consistent with those of Mode 5, indicating that baseball-team participation negatively affects the BCT score, in addition to the disadvantagous influence of poorer eighth-grade academic performance.

Regression analysis of independent variables on intervening variables
In light of the findings for Mode 4 in Table 4, it can be concluded that the intervening variables of the number of household educational equipment items and parental coursework tutoring did not exhibit significant impacts on the BCT score.Consequently, these two variables can be deemed as nonessential factors that do not significantly influence the BCT score.The subsequent regression analysis of independent and intervening variables excluded these two factors to maintain a clear focus on the research objective and streamline this article.
To elucidate the disparity in BCT scores between students who were and who were not in the baseball team, this study concurrently examined three crucial factors that influenced the BCT scores.These factors comprised student backgrounds (Table 2), the impact of these backgrounds and the intervening variables on the BCT score (Table 4, Mode 4), and the impact of independent variables on the intervening variables (Table 5) to delineate the pathways through which these factors affected the BCT scores of students in the baseball team.
The regression analysis revealed that students involved in the baseball team exhibited a lower prevalence of unhealthy hobbies compared with their non-baseball-team *p < 0.05 counterparts, which positively influenced their academic performance (Table 5).However, indigenous students comprised 75.3% of the baseball team, who engaged in a larger number of unhealthy hobbies, exhibited less participation in refined cultural activities, received less after-school tutoring, and faced lower parental education expectations, all of which exerted negative impacts on their academic grades.Furthermore, all members of the baseball team were male students, who had a higher prevalence of unhealthy hobbies and obsessive leisure activities, but demonstrated less involvement in refined cultural activities, and faced lower parental education and achievement expectations.These factors are disadvantages in academic achievements.
Moreover, a comparison between students whose paternal education fell within the senior-or vocational-high-school category and those with fathers who had a college education or above demonstrated a lower prevalence of unhealthy hobbies, engaged in fewer obsessive leisure activities, and received more after-school tutoring, all of which contributed to their academic achievement.However, within the baseball-team-student subgroup, the proportion with fathers who had a college education or above (8.9%)was significantly lower than that of non-baseball-team students (16.7%).
On the other hand, when comparing students whose mothers had achieved a senioror vocational-high-school education with those whose mothers had only elementaryschool or no formal education, it was observed that the latter group engaged in higher prevalence of unhealthy hobbies and obsessive leisure activities, had less exposure to refined cultural activities, received less after-school tutoring, and experienced lower parental education and achievement expectations.Collectively, these factors negatively impacted the academic achievement of the students while less parental computer science tutoring were associated with better academic performance.In this study, however, the percentage of baseball-team students whose mothers had an elementary-school education or below (35.2%) was significantly higher than that for non-baseball-team students (16.5%).
When maternal education reached the college level or above, it was linked to a greater exposure to refined cultural activities and higher parental education expectations, both of which are advantageous for academic performance.However, the percentage of baseball-team students with mothers who had a college education or above (1.9%) was even lower than that of non-baseball-team students (12.3%).
Furthermore, when comparing students whose paternal occupation was that of a laborer with those whose paternal occupation was that of a white-collar employee, the latter group exhibited a lower prevalence of unhealthy hobbies, which positively impacted the academic achievements of the students.Conversely, greater parental tutoring in computer science proved to be detrimental to academic performance.Within the context of this study, the percentage of paternal white-collar occupations was lower for baseball-team students (11.4%) than for non-baseball-team students (17.3%).
The findings of the aforementioned analysis indicated that baseball-team students tended to have lower BCT scores than non-baseball-team students.This can be attributed to several disadvantageous background factors, including indigenous identity, male gender, parental education, and paternal occupation.These factors also negatively influenced BCT scores via the three facets of family capital.Conversely, there were two factors that had positive impacts on baseball-team students: (1) their less engagement in unhealthy hobbies contributed to their academic performance and (2) the lower levels of maternal education, specifically elementary school or below, led to reduced computer science tutoring.The underlying reasons for the lower prevalence of unhealthy hobbies and reduced parental computer science tutoring among baseball-team students are explained in the Comprehensive Discussion section.

Discussion of the results validating the hypotheses
An academic analysis and discussion of the results that would validate the hypotheses is provided below.

Impacts of the three facets of family capital on BCT scores
Previous research has provided evidence that support Hypotheses 1.1, 1.2, 1.3, 1.5, and 1.6.However, Hypothesis 1.4, which posited a positive relationship between the number of household educational equipment items and BCT scores, was not supported.This lack of support may be attributed to the operationalization of these eight items, which includes personal desks, study rooms, stereo equipment, computers, pianos, violins, antiques, and artworks.Many of these are already considered basic equipment commonly found in households, such as personal desks, study rooms, stereo equipment, and computers.Consequently, using these items as indicators may not accurately capture the intended construct or provide a suitable measure for assessing the impact of household educational equipment on BCT scores (see Table 4, mode 4).

Impact of background on the intervening variables
The findings of the study largely corroborated the examined hypotheses.Specifically, support was found for Hypothesis 2.1, which posited a positive relationship between family SES and engagement in refined cultural activities; Hypothesis 2.2, which suggested a positive association between family SES and parental education expectations; and Hypothesis 2.3, which proposed a positive correlation between family SES and participation in after-school tutoring, and Hypothesis 2.5, which is that Han Chinese parents have higher education expectations than indigenous parents.Empirical evidence was in favor of Hypotheses 2.4 "The prevalence of engaging in unhealthy hobbies is higher for indigenous than for Han Chinese students." (see Table 5).

Hypotheses on the impact of baseball-team participation on BCT scores
The findings of this study supported Hypothesis 3.1, indicating that the BCT scores of baseball-team students are lower than those of non-baseball-team students.

Links between sports participation and academic achievement: a spectrum of studies from qualitative to quantitative, and from correlation to causation
The present study aimed to determine the relationship between the sports participation and academic performance of students.The regression analysis confirmed that participation in baseball teams negatively impacted BCT scores.This study adopted a quantitative approach to identify causal pathways between variables, distinguishing it from previous correlational studies (Grimit, 2014;Lindo et al., 2012;Lo & Tsai, 2011a, 2011b).

Lower BCT scores for indigenous students partially contribute to lower BCT scores among baseball-team students
Previous studies (Huang & Chiu, 2012;Lin, 2010;Lin & Chu, 2009;Lin & Hung, 2013) have indicated a high prevalence of baseball participation among indigenous students.The present study further found that approximately 75% of indigenous students participate in baseball teams.This high participation rate can be attributed to various factors, including exceptional athletic ability, a strong community baseball culture, personal interests, parental encouragement, lower academic performance, potential economic improvement, opportunities for higher education, and the prospect of a fresh start (Lin, 2013;Lin & Chu, 2009).
However, it is imperative to acknowledge that baseball participation can be viewed as a double-edged sword for indigenous people.On the one hand it provides opportunities for social and economic mobility, enabling individuals to escape poverty (Lin, 2013(Lin, , 2016)), while on the other hand, the investment in sports can come at a significant opportunity cost (Lin, 2013(Lin, , 2016)), such as potential negative impacts on academic performance.
Do the lower BCT scores of baseball-team students result from the lower academic scores of indigenous individuals?This study found that both baseball-team students and indigenous students achieved low BCT scores of 68.52 and 83.54, respectively.Regression analysis revealed that baseball-team students still demonstrated lower BCT scores than non-baseball-team students even after controlling for ethnicity (Table 4, Mode 2).This suggests that while indigenous students had lower BCT scores, they were not the lowest; the lowest BCT scores were observed among baseball team participants, highlighting a phenomenon that has received insufficient attention in previous research.
The association between baseball-team participation and academic performance remains unclear, and leads to a vague attribution of the poorer performance of baseball-team students to the poorer academic results of indigenous students.However, this study found that the mean BCT score of baseball-team students was 47.50 points lower than that of non-baseball-team students, with 20.49 of those points attributed to differences in ethnicity.The poorer performance of indigenous students therefore only partially explained the lower BCT scores of baseball-team students.The remaining difference of 27.01 points cannot be solely attributed to ethnic factors, indicating that baseball-team participation has a more-pronounced negative impact on BCT scores, while ethnicity plays a lesser role.
Academic intervention for indigenous populations has previously been identified as necessary due to their poorer academic performance (Chen et al., 2007(Chen et al., , 2006a(Chen et al., , 2006b)).The present study further confirmed that students who participate in baseball teams exhibit lower BCT scores compared with indigenous students.These findings highlight the declining academic performance of students involved in varsity teams, and serve as a reminder to authorities, schools, coaches, and parents.While it is crucial to address the poorer academic achievements of indigenous individuals, equal attention should also be directed toward the academic performance of students involved in athletic teams.This was highlighted by the students in varsity baseball teams demonstrating even lower academic records than indigenous students.
The findings of this study, indicating poorer academic performance among students engaged in baseball teams, resonate with the results of a regression analysis conducted by Tania et al. (2022) on 1126 senior-high-school students attending sports schools in Spain between 2010 and 2019.Tania et al. observed that elite athletes, encompassing winners in various sports such as swimming, cycling, weightlifting, track and field, basketball, football, rowing, rugby, hockey, among others, exhibited significantly lower academic performance compared to a control group consisting of nonathletes or recreational athletes.The phenomenon attributes to the challenges elite athletes face in balancing rigorous training schedules and academic commitments (Gavala-González et al., 2019).This aligns closely with the argumentation of the present study that student athletes with dual identities dedicate substantial time and effort to training and competitions, often at the expense of academic pursuits.

Background factors based on the impacts of three facets of family capital on BCT scores among baseball-team students
This study provided evidence supporting the hypothesis of the backgrounds of baseballteam students influencing the BCT scores through the frameworks of cultural capital from Bourdieu and financial capital and social capital from Coleman.These findings were consistent with those of previous research that has highlighted the impacts of the facets of family capital on academic achievements (Bray, 2013;Jeynes, 2007;Lin et al., 2015;Rothon et al., 2012).
It is worth noting that previous studies that explored the influence of background variables on dependent variables through intervening variables primarily focused on factors such as ethnicity, gender, and educational levels among ordinary students.The inclusion of baseball-team students as an independent variable was relatively uncommon in such investigations.This study therefore stands out from prior research since it examined the causal mechanisms underlying how the backgrounds of baseball-team students influence BCT scores from the perspective of the facets of family capital.

Baseball-team students have less engagement in unhealthy hobbies
Prior research has highlighted that student athletes often engage in unhealthy hobbies, such as smoking and drinking, which can be attributed to competitive pressure, peer influence, and personal characteristics (Hu et al., 2010;Ichiyama & Kruse, 1998;Lin et al., 2012;Serrao et al., 2008).However, contrary to these findings, the present study found that baseball-team students exhibited fewer unhealthy hobbies.
The interviews conducted for the study revealed that most of the players resided on campus and received comprehensive life management and training from the school team.Coaches and management teachers provided constant support and supervision, and took care of their daily routines.It can therefore be assumed that this reduced the opportunities for players to engage in activities such as smoking, drinking, or chewing betel nuts.The present study therefore suggests that the group-oriented lifestyle within the junior-high-school baseball team contributes to a reduced likelihood of adopting unhealthy hobbies.However, further research is necessary to validate this inference.

Parental computer science tutoring negatively impacts academic results
This study yielded an unexpected result concerning the influence of parental computer science tutoring, which contradicted the initial assumption.However, it is noteworthy that this finding aligns with the conclusions drawn in Hill and Tyson's (2009) study.It is commonly believed that parental guidance in computer science aids in enhancing the learning outcomes of children.One possible explanation for this disparity, however, is that eighth-grade students do not rely heavily on computers for completing their homework, while parental computer science tutoring may inadvertently expose children to nonacademic activities such as internet browsing, chatting, and gaming, which could reduce their focus on academic improvement.

Summary
The present study found that the BCT score of senior-high-school entrance examination was significantly lower (by 47.5 points) for students who participated in the baseball team than those who did not.This notable disparity could primarily be attributed to the disadvantaged family backgrounds of the baseball-team students.
The study also found that the disadvantaged family background had a negative influence on the BCT scores of baseball-team students through various facets of family capital.The negative impacts on grades of all factors outweighed the positive ones, despite the baseball-team students exhibiting fewer unhealthy hobbies and having a lower likelihood of receiving computer science tutoring from mothers with an elementary-school education or below, which were found to have positive effects on their academic performance.As a result, even when controlling for background and the three facets of family capital, the BCT scores of the baseball-team students remained lower than those of nonbaseball-team students.
The influential pathways of the backgrounds of baseball-team students on their BCT scores can be understood through the three facets of family capital as follows: 1. Ethnicity plays a significant role, since 75% of the baseball-team students were indigenous individuals.This group tended to have a higher prevalence of unhealthy hobbies and less engagement in refined cultural activities, and their parents had lower education and achievement expectations, all of which negatively impact their academic records.2. Gender also had an impact, as all the baseball-team students were male.Their parents also had lower education and achievement expectations.These factors had detrimental effects on their academic scores.3. Paternal education is another factor that influenced academic performance.Half of the baseball-team students had fathers with a junior-high-school education or below.This, in turn, contributed to lower parental education and achievement expectations, which ultimately resulted in a negative impact on their academic grades.
4. Maternal education also played a role.More than one-third of these students had mothers with an elementary-school education or below.This subgroup demonstrated a higher propensity for engaging in unhealthy hobbies and obsessive leisure activities, while exhibiting less participation in refined cultural activities.They also received less after-school tutoring and faced lower parental education and achievement expectations.These factors had detrimental impacts on their academic scores.
In contrast, the lower rate of parental computer science tutoring positively affected the academic performance of baseball-team students.The 29.6% of students whose mothers had a junior-high-school education also exhibited less participation in refined cultural activities and faced lower parental education and achievement expectations, which contributed to negative outcomes in their academic performance.
This study offers insight into the factors influencing the lower BCT scores among baseball team members.While it was observed that indigenous students exhibit poorer performance, this factor only partially explained the overall lower BCT scores.Despite findings that students with lower academic performance were more inclined to participate in baseball activities, controlling for eighth-grade academic performance revealed that the lower BCT scores persisted among baseball team members.This suggests that participation in the baseball team negatively impacted academic performance regardless of students' academic standing.Thus, attributing lower BCT scores merely to students with lower academic performance joining baseball teams would oversimplify the situation.

Implement learning baseball and normalized training in junior high school
Schools should align with the educational goal of acquiring basic competence (MOE, 2010).Baseball activities should not interfere with students' weekday learning.Daily and weekly practice hours should be restricted to ensure the practical application of baseball knowledge and promote its consistent development.Schools must acknowledge that an excessive pursuit of baseball championships may adversely impact students' academic progress.

Schools have to follow the principles of balancing academics and baseball
In the development of distinctive school features, adherence to a synchronized approach that balances academics and baseball is paramount.Caution must be exercised to prevent potential harm resulting from premature and overly specialized training.Emphasis should be placed on reorienting extracurricular activities and courses toward leisure and interest exploration, guiding students to engage in baseball while considering their academic learning.Additionally, schools should establish a tutoring plan or remedial teaching for students involved in the baseball training program.Following the examples set by the NCAA, implementing restrictions on players failing to meet academic requirements would ensure a harmonious balance baseball training and academic commitments (Bowers et al., 2011;Franklin, 2006;Won & Hong, 2015).

Fig. 1
Fig. 1 Research Framework for the BCT Scores of Students in the Baseball Team

Table 2 ,
primarily due to missing data from ninth-grade students.Reasons for missing data include students not attending the test, not completing all five subject tests, or leaving Taitung to participate in the BCT conducted elsewhere

Table 2
Analysis of the percentages and means of baseball-team background and intervening variables

Table 4
Regression Results for the BCT Scores of the Baseball-Team Students

Table 5
Regression Results for the Independent Variables and Intervening Variables