Can Immigrants Help Women 'Have it All'? Immigrant Labor and Women's Joint Fertility and Labor Supply Decisions

This paper explores how inflows of low-skilled immigrants impact the tradeoffs women face when making joint fertility and labor supply decisions. I find increases in fertility and decreases in labor force participation rates among high skilled US-born women in cities that have experienced larger immigrant inflows. Most interestingly, these changes have been accompanied by decreases in the strength of the negative correlation between childbearing and labor force participation, an often-used measure of the difficulty with which women combine motherhood and labor market work. Using a structured statistical model, I show that the immigrant-induced attenuation of this negative correlation can explain about 24 percent of the immigrant-induced increases in the joint likelihood of childbearing and labor force participation in the U.S. between the years 1980 and 2000.


Introduction
The highly time-intensive nature of childrearing implies a tradeoff between fertility and labor supply, particularly for women given their traditional role of performing household work (Becker 1985;Willis 1973). Within-country empirical analyses indicate a consistently negative association between fertility and female labor force participation. However, Engelhardt, Kögel, and Prskawetz (2004) find that this relationship has weakened substantially since the 1960s, particularly in the United States, suggesting that women are finding it easier to combine their roles as workers and mothers.
Cross-country studies reveal a positive correlation between fertility and labor force participation since the 1980s (Adsera 2004;Brewster and Rindfuss 2000). There is evidence suggesting that high unemployment and unstable employment contracts in Southern Europe combined with the generous maternity benefits in Scandinavia can at least partially explain why countries with the highest fertility rates also have the highest female labor force participation rates (Adsera 2004). Cross-country differences in the cost, availability, and quality of child care, driven mostly by child care subsidies, might also explain why women in certain countries can more easily combine motherhood with labor force participation (Brewster and Rindfuss 1996). Formal child care is typically provided by the private market in the US, and any childcare subsidies are targeted to single mothers at the margin of receiving welfare payments (Blau and Tekin 2007). However, in light of the evidence that immigrant inflows are associated with decreases in the price (Furtado 2014) and likely improvements in the convenience of child care (Cortes and Pan 2013), this paper examines whether and how the increased immigration to the US between 1980 and 2000 has contributed to the decreasing tradeoffs women face when making joint work and fertility decisions.
Consistent with the notion that combining mother and worker roles has become easier over time, fertility has been increasing for college-educated women (Shang and Weinberg 2012), the very women with the highest labor force participation rates. Although home appliances, such as microwave ovens, and time-saving products, such as frozen foods, have been found to play a role in explaining increased female 2 labor force participation rates (Greenwood et al. 2005, Coen-Pirani et al. 2010, most of the diffusion of these technologies seems to have occurred before 1980 (Greenwood et al. 2005). Hazan and Zoabi (2014) present evidence of a U-shaped relationship between education and fertility among the newest cohorts of U.S. women. They explain this with a model showing that high wage women substitute housekeeping and babysitting services for their own time in household production thereby allowing them to increase fertility without sacrificing their careers. The authors' empirical results suggest that this new pattern is attributable to the change in the cost of child care relative to high skilled women's wages.
Another line of research investigates the relationship between childcare costs and the likelihood that mothers work (Blau and Robins 1988;Connelly 1992, Kimmel 1998, and Kornstad and Thoreson 2007. In a survey article, Blau and Currie (2006) highlight the wide-ranging estimated elasticities of employment with respect to child care costs and attribute cross-study discrepancies largely to variation in biases from different estimation strategies. Newer studies estimate mothers' labor supply decisions by exploiting cross time and regional variation in the price or availability of care resulting from differences in the implementation of childcare-related public policies (Baker, Gruber and Mulligan 2008;Cascio 2009, Lefebvre and Merrigan 2008, Lundin et al. 2008, Havnes and Mogstad 2011. While these studies generally find that decreased childcare costs increase maternal labor supply, the estimates differ quite substantially. In fact, some studies find little to no causal impact of subsidized child care on mother's employment (Cascio 2009;Havnes and Mogstad 2011). It may be that subsidized child care simply crowds out informal childcare arrangements (Havnes and Mogstad 2011), but it is also possible that women respond to less expensive child care by having an additional child which then depresses labor supply, perhaps temporarily. Exploiting variation generated from a Swedish childcare subsidy reform, Mörk, Sjögren, and Svaleryd (2013) find that lower childcare costs lead to more childbearing.
Another potential source of variation in the price, convenience, and quality of child care comes from cross-city differences in the availability of low-skilled immigrant labor. My analysis complements a growing literature, pioneered by Cortes and Tessada (2011), examining the relationship between immigration and labor supply decisions of highly skilled native women. Cortes and Tessada find that low-3 skilled immigration to large U.S. metropolitan areas led to increases in the number of hours worked by women at the top of the wage distribution. Similar conclusions have been drawn for Spain (Farre, Gonzalez, and Ortega 2011), Italy (Barone and Mocetti 2011), and Hong Kong (Cortes and Pan 2013).
Fertility rates of high skilled US born women have also been shown to increase in response to immigrant inflows (Furtado 2014). Consistent with the labor supply impacts of immigration literature, Furtado (2014) finds increased likelihoods of women working 50 hours a week or more in response to immigration, but perhaps paradoxically, she also finds decreases in labor force participation rates, a result potentially attributable to women temporarily leaving the labor force upon giving birth but then working long hours upon returning. 1 Regardless of whether women respond to immigrant-induced decreases in childrearing costs by increasing labor supply and decreasing fertility, increasing fertility and decreasing labor supply, or even increasing both, lower childcare costs should make it less important to leave the labor force after giving birth. Thus, we should expect that in cities with larger immigrant inflows, the negative correlation between childbearing and labor force participation should become less strong. This is precisely the result in Furtado and Hock (2010). However, the problem with using correlations to measure the difficulty with which women combine their roles as worker and mother is that correlations cannot directly quantify changes in observable outcomes of individuals.
In this paper, I start by considering the direct impact of immigration on the likelihood that a woman chooses to both give birth and participate in the labor market shortly thereafter, certainly a more tangible measure of mother-worker role compatibility. Next, I estimate the impact of immigrant inflows on the likelihood of childbearing, the likelihood of participating in the labor force, and the correlation between the two. The structure of the model allows me to then combine these estimates to construct an indirect measure of the impact of immigration on the joint likelihood of childbearing and labor force 1 Cortes and Tessada's (2011) estimates of the impact of immigration on labor force participation of high skilled women in the U.S. are also negative, but statistically insignificant. Barone and Mocetti (2011) estimate positive but insignificant effects in their study of Italy, while Farre et al. (2011) and Cortes and Pan (2013) do find a positive and statistically significant relationships for high skilled females in Spain and Hong Kong, respectively. My results may differ from all of these given that my sample consists only of women of childbearing age. 4 participation. I then decompose this effect into three components: the effect on childbearing, the effect on labor force participation, and the effect on the correlation between the two. In so doing, I can then determine how much of the increase in the joint likelihood of childbearing and working is attributable to a decrease in the tradeoffs women face when making fertility and labor supply decisions.
The difficulty with any empirical analysis of immigration that exploits cross-city variation in foreign-born concentrations is that immigrants do not choose where to live randomly. They may be more likely to reside in areas with an industry mix more (or less) conducive to combining work and family for highly skilled women. It is also plausible that immigrants tend to move to areas with more demand for childcare services precisely because women in these areas want to both have larger families and to work.
Following other studies in this literature, I take an enclave-based instrumental variables approach pioneered by Card (2001) which exploits historical settlement patterns of immigrants from different countries.
Using U.S. Census data from 1980 to 2000 in conjunction with 1970 data to construct the enclave-based instrument, I find that inflows of low-skilled immigrants between 1980 and 2000 resulted in a higher joint likelihood of childbearing and labor force participation among high-skilled women.
These increases were a result of increases in fertility that were accompanied by reductions in labor force participation (LFP) rates. I find that that about 24 percent of the impact of immigration on the joint likelihood of childbearing and working was attributable to a weakening of the negative fertility-work correlation. This suggests that indeed low skilled immigration has made it easier for women to combine work and family responsibilities. Additional analyses suggest that these results are quite robust and are unlikely to be driven by omitted variable or selection bias.
The remainder of the paper is organized as follows. In Section 2, I describe the model of decision making that underpins my investigation of childbearing and labor force participation patterns. A brief description of the data used in the analysis follows in Section 2. After presenting the main results in Section 3, I discuss how the estimated parameters may be interpreted. I also conduct specification checks 5 concerning the validity of the estimation method and the extent to which geographic selection might affect the results. Finally, Section 4 provides additional discussion and concluding remarks.

The Model
Female employment and fertility decisions can be described using the standard bivariate probit model framework: where * igmt C and * igmt L describe the desirability of childbearing and labor force participation (LFP) for woman i who is a member of age group g and living in metropolitan area m in year t. As will be discussed in more detail below, we divide the sample into groups predominantly because correlations can only be calculated at some level of aggregation. Although we use age to define groups in our analysis, this model 6 Even under the assumption that low-skilled immigrant inflows only affect childbearing and labor force participation decisions of high skilled women by decreasing childcare costs, theory does not provide clear predictions for 1 β and 2 β . As described in detail in Blau and Robins (1989), women may respond to lower childcare costs by having an additional child given the reduction in the price of childrearing.
They may also work more hours given that their net take-home pay increases when childcare costs decrease. However, because of the highly time-intensive nature of caring for young children, labor force participation may, at least initially, decrease if women respond to lower childcare costs by having an additional child. Similarly, if upon entering the labor force (as a result of decreased childcare costs) women start valuing their roles as breadwinners, they may choose not to have a second or third child. In the end, the net impact of childcare costs, and hence low-skilled immigration, on fertility and labor supply decisions is an empirical question.
In addition to examining the propensities to work and to bear children, the standard bivariate probit model enables an analysis of the correlation between the two. If the error terms in equations (1) and (2) follow a bivariate normal distribution, is, by definition, the tetrachoric correlation. The tetrachoric correlation can be understood as the degree to which changes in childbearing--that are not a result of immigration and the other variables in the model--translate into changes in labor force participation (alternatively, the degree to which exogenous changes in labor force participation translate into changes in childbearing). Hence the tetrachoric correlation would, for example, determine the effect of an unintended pregnancy on desired labor supply or the effect of an increase in the local demand for high-skilled labor on the desirability of childbearing. Thus, ρ should be negative as is almost universally the case in the sample. Although the use of bivariate models to study behaviors is certainly not new, an innovation of this paper is to explore how the correlation is affected by low-skilled immigration. I use the parameterization where gmt v is a vector of characteristics of women in group g in metro m in year t, and e gmt represents the un-modeled determinants of ρ . If an increase in low-skilled immigration results in less expensive, more convenient, or better quality market-based childcare services, 3 β should be positive. That is, low-skilled immigration should dampen the negative latent correlation between childbearing and labor supply.

Grouped Estimation with Instrumental Variables
Although I start with the individual-level data provided by IPUMS, the analyses are all conducted with metropolitan area-year-age group cells as the unit of observation. The reasons for creating these groups are twofold. First, the group-level model, which is based on a slight generalization of Amemiya's (1974) grouped bivariate probit specification, allows for a straightforward application of instrumental variables.
More importantly, grouping is necessary in order to calculate the tetrachoric correlation, which, like any other correlation, is not defined at the individual level. Linking the effect of immigration on the correlation to its effect on the joint probability of work and childbearing, an innovation of our work, would not be possible without the grouped model.
The coefficients in the individual-level model presented in the previous section can be estimated by analyzing sample proportions and using group-level explanatory variables ( gmt v ). Given the bivariate normal distribution of the error terms, the expected rates of childbearing and LFP follow univariate normal distributions: denote the inverse standard normal cumulative distribution (normit) function applied to the observed rates of childbearing and LFP. Thus, we can estimate these equations with linear univariate models despite the bivariate structure of the overall model.
Moreover, based on equation (3), the expression for the empirical analogue of the population tetrachoric correlation obtained from the data can be expressed as Equations (5)-(7) correspond to Amemiya's (1974) equations (4.11)-(4.13), with the expression in (7) additionally relying on the parameterization of the tetrachoric correlation described above.
The empirical analog of the tetrachoric correlation is significantly less straightforward to compute than the analogues of the expected rates of childbearing and labor force participation. It is calculated based on the population relationship: where CL gmt π represents the expected share of women who simultaneously bear children and participate in the labor force and ( ) F ⋅ denotes the standard bivariate normal distribution function. Using the observed proportions ( C p , L p , and CL p ) as analogues of the expected values in equation (8)  where ξ represents a pre-defined level of precision, which we set to 50 2 − . 3 Note that monotonicity of ( ) F ⋅ also implies that a higher value of ρ will, ceteris paribus, translate into a higher joint likelihood of childbearing and labor force participation.
If there are any groups in which any of the dependent variables take on the same value across its members, the data become uninformative and it is not possible to estimate the empirical tetrachoric correlation. Consequently, I divide the sample of college-graduate women into only two broad age groups, women ages 22-32 and women ages 33-43, and include measures of the average characteristics of the group as explanatory variables. Even with these broadly specified categories, there were a few MSAyear-age group cells with all ones or all zeros. In these cases, I replace zeros with 0.001 and ones with 0.999 when calculating the normits and estimating ρ .
The model described by equations (5) through (7) where y is one of the three dependent variables (c, ℓ, r). The low-skilled immigrant share of the overall working-age population immigration is denoted LSI . Metropolitan area-specific intercepts are indicated by m μ , while kt μ represents time fixed effects specific to the kth Census region. The variable IncControl denotes the log of income per capita among working-age male college graduates. Added to these variables are age-group fixed effects ( g µ ) and a vector of demographic controls ( gmt x ). The vector gmt x includes the share of women of women in each MSA-year-age group cell who are married and the corresponding proportions of the group that self-identify as being black and that self-identify as being a member of another non-white, non-Hispanic race. Each group-MSA-year cell is weighted by the estimated population of women represented by the cell. Robust standard errors are clustered by MSA.
In the following sections, I describe the data as well as the instrumental variables strategy and some baseline results relating immigrant inflows to the likelihood that women have both recently given birth 3 Stata code for this calculation will be available in an online appendix to this paper.
10 and are participating in the labor market. 4 I then come back to the model just presented to gain insight into a variety of the mechanisms whereby low-skilled immigration may exert its effects. Specifically, the model will allow me to separately estimate the impact of low-skilled immigration on: (i) the likelihood of bearing children, (ii) the likelihood of participating in the labor market, and (iii) the correlation between the two. Most importantly, however, the model will be used to indirectly calculate the effect of lowskilled immigration on the joint likelihood of working and giving birth, decomposing the total effect into changes in the marginal likelihoods and changes in the correlation between fertility and work.

Data
In order to provide readers with a basic sense of what has been happening to women's work and fertility decisions over time, I start by plotting the proportion of women of child-bearing age that both work and have given birth in the previous year (a 3-year moving average is plotted to smooth out year-to-year fluctuations). 5 As shown in Figure 1, the joint rate of childbearing and labor force participation is small in absolute terms, which reflects the relative infrequency of childbirth. However, the joint rate among Interestingly, the share of women in MSA-year-age group cells who have recently given birth and participate in the labor market is higher in cities with smaller immigrant populations. The correlation between fertility and labor force participation is also less negative in these cities. The table suggests that these relationships are driven by differences in the likelihood of childbearing since labor force participation rates are nearly identical in low and high immigration cities. The negative association between share foreign born and work-life balance cannot be taken too seriously given that the cities that attract more immigrants differ in ways that might affect women's fertility and labor supply decisions. For example, college-educated men in low immigration cities tend to have smaller yearly incomes. If highskilled women in these cities also have lower wages, the opportunity cost of childbearing and specifically, leaving the labor force after giving birth, will be lower.
Turning now to the characteristics of the college-educated women in the sample, Table 1 shows that marriage rates are higher among women in cities with fewer immigrants suggesting that family norms, as opposed to immigrant shares, may explain the higher fertility rates in low-immigrant cities. Also of note is that while the proportion of college-educated women in the sample that is black is practically the same across city-types, women in the sample are significantly more likely to be non-white, non-Hispanic, and non-black in high immigration cities.

Direct Estimation
While the structure of the model will eventually allow me to decompose immigration's impact into A natural concern with this model is that cities with large immigrant populations may be Notice that the IV estimate of the effect of immigrant share is positive and larger in magnitude than the fixed effects estimate shown in the previous column. This suggests that immigrants tend to be drawn to cities with either lower fertility rates, lower labor force participation, or both.
A potential problem with even the IV estimate arises if the distribution of different ethnic groups across cities in 1970 has a direct impact on women's work and fertility decisions in different cities ten to 30 years later. This may occur, for example, if the composition of a city's foreign born population in 1970 leads to a specific industry mix which might make work more or less attractive. To examine whether this is likely to be problematic, in column 4 I add to the model a measure of women's potential wage income: the log of average yearly income for college-educated males in the MSA and year. 7 Estimates barely change suggesting that this is unlikely to be a problem.
The estimates of the coefficients tell us the impact of the variables on the normit of the joint likelihood of childbearing and labor force participation. To interpret these coefficients in a more meaningful way, we compute marginal effects in the standard way except that when calculating the average, each observation is weighted by the proportion of high-skilled women represented by the MSA- year-age group cell. The low-skilled immigrant share of the labor force in the average high-skilled woman's MSA rose from about 6.6% in 1980 to 9.8% in 2000. As can be seen in Table 2, our final and preferred specification implies that such a change in the share of low-skilled immigrants in a woman's MSA leads to a .58 percentage point increase in the probability that she has given birth in the previous year and participates in the labor market.
I conclude therefore that immigrant inflows do increase the proportion of childbearing-age women that have recently given birth and participate in the labor market. This is certainly consistent with the notion that immigrant-induced better childcare options make combining work and family less difficult. In the next section, I examine whether the immigration effects operate mostly through direct impacts on fertility and labor participation decisions or more indirectly by changing the tradeoffs women must make when deciding between the two.

Indirect Estimation
This part of the analysis, I consider the impact of immigration on fertility and labor force participation rates in addition to the correlation between the two. Coefficients in models depicted by equation 9 are estimated using the IV presented in the previous section. As can be seen in Table 3, the IV coefficients indicate that low-skilled immigration leads to significantly higher fertility rates and lower labor force participation rates. Using the IV point estimates to compute the average partial effects (APEs), a 3. Taken together, the changes in the marginal likelihoods results suggest that high-skilled women in our sample of MSAs respond to immigrant-induced reductions in childrearing costs by exiting from the labor force to bear children. This pattern of behavior, along with a generally negative tetrachoric correlation, indicates that high-skilled women face tradeoffs between work and fertility. As seen in the third column of Table 5, low-skilled immigration also attenuates the negative correlation between childbearing and labor force participation.
I return now to the bivariate probit structure of the model presented in Section 2 in order to indirectly calculate the marginal effect of immigration using estimated βs from the three univariate models. Specifically, equations (3) and (4) (11)  born, but instead by putting together estimates of the low-skilled immigration coefficients in the fertility, labor force participation, and correlation models using the structure implied by the bivariate probit model.
Thus, its validity rests on the statistical structure of the bivariate probit model as well as the implicit assumption that the women who change their fertility in response to immigration are the same women who change their labor supply.
In order to verify that the indirect estimate is not being affected by these assumptions, I compare the indirect estimate of the impact of immigration on the joint likelihood, shown in the last column of Table 3 to the direct estimate, first shown in Table 2 but reproduced in Table 3 for convenience. As can be seen in the Table 3, the marginal impact of immigration implied by the coefficient is similar to what is 18 obtained using the indirect method. This should assuage most concerns regarding the indirect methodology.
The indirect approach enables a decomposition of the total effect of immigration into a portion attributable to increasing fertility, a portion attributable to changing labor force participation, and a portion to decreasing the tradeoffs must make. As seen in Table 3, about 24% of the total effect of low skilled immigration on the joint likelihood is attributable to the weakened latent correlation between fertility and work, with the remainder arising from differential changes in childbearing and labor force participation rates. This implies that low-skilled immigrants not only directly affect women's fertility and labor supply decisions, but a substantial portion of immigrants' influence operates by making it less important for women to decrease labor force participation in response to additional births which are unrelated immigration.
Between 1980 Table 4, the estimated effect of immigration on the joint rate of fertility and labor force participation rises when removing this high immigration state. The basic story of increasing fertility rates, decreasing labor force participation, and attenuation of the negative correlation remains the same.
I also consider the robustness of results to a slightly different way of grouping the data. As discussed above, grouped data is necessary to conduct the analysis of correlations and it allows for a straightforward application of instrumental variables techniques within a bivariate probit model. The construction of groups using two age categories, however, was rather arbitrary. To check for the sensitivity of results to this decision, I increased the number of age categories to three. As can be seen in Table 4, this yields similar estimates suggesting that the structured model is not skewing the estimates of the effects of low-skilled immigration.
Perhaps of more concern than outliers or the grouped structure of the data is whether the instrument is correlated with the error terms in the estimating equations. More specifically, the validity of the IV results rests on the assumption that the distribution of immigrants across metropolitan areas in 1970 was not affected by or a factor determining other city-level characteristics that might, in the absence of subsequent immigration, affect later changes in the fertility and labor force participation outcomes of high-skilled U.S.-born women. A potential violation of this assumption is the following: Immigrants might have been historically more highly represented in metropolitan areas with more persistent traditional family values. This seems unlikely given that high-skilled women have higher fertility rates in cities with fewer immigrants (Table 1), but if it were true, my estimation strategy would falsely attribute changes in fertility and work outcomes to the rising share of low-skilled immigrants in the labor market.
To explore whether this is likely to be problematic, I examine the relationship between marriage patterns and low-skilled immigration. If there happens to be stronger family norms in cities receiving more immigrants as a result of historical ethnic enclaves, then my analysis should generate a positive relationship between immigration and marriage rates along with an increase in the joint probability of marriage and labor force participation. This cannot be considered a pure placebo test given the possibility that committed couples respond to immigrant-induced decreases in childcare costs by having a baby but get married before childbirth. It turns out, however, that my estimation strategy does not yield any 20 statistically or economically significant relationships between immigrant inflows and marriage. As can be seen in Panel C of  (12) where gmt N denotes the number of non-Hispanic female college graduates in age group g in metro area m in year t. All of the right hand variables have been previously defined, with the exception of gmt T , which denotes the total number of non-Hispanic native females in the age-MSA-year cell. Equation (12) essentially tests for growth in the population of high-skilled females, relative to the overall population of same-age females. Although these results are not shown in tables, instrumental variables regression analysis indicates an IV estimate of γ of -2.36 with a corresponding p value of 0.26. This suggests that composition bias due to selective migration is not likely to be a problem for this analysis.

Conclusion
The results in this paper suggest that immigration to the US between 1980 and 2000 increased the fertility of U.S.-born college graduates of childbearing age. This rise in childbearing was accompanied by an increase in exits from the labor force. Most interestingly, low-skilled immigration resulted in a weakening of the negative correlation between fertility and work and a sizeable increase in the joint likelihood of childbearing and labor force participation. The structure of the model allows me to determine that about a quarter of the increase in the joint likelihood can be attributed to a weakening of the negative correlation between childbearing and labor force participation. Taken together, these findings indicate that low-21 skilled immigration substantially reduces the work-fertility tradeoff faced by educated urban American women. Kremer (2006) argues that migration of foreign domestic household workers may raise wages of low-skilled native workers relative to high skilled workers and can create large fiscal gains for receiving countries. His model implies that if high-skill women respond to immigrant-induced better childcare options by entering the labor force or working more hours, the ratio of skilled to unskilled workers decreases thereby driving down skilled wages relative to unskilled wages. Given that home production is not taxed and high skill women are often married to high wage men, these women will typically pay a high marginal tax rate when entering the labor market thus generating large fiscal gains. Several analyses have concluded that high skill women do tend to work longer hours in response to immigrant inflows (Cortes and Tessada 2011, Barone and Mocetti 2011, Farre et al. 2011, Cortes and Pan 2013, Furtado 2014). This paper contributes to this literature by additionally showing that some women respond to better childcare options with increases in fertility and decreases in labor force participation. While the (most likely temporary) decreases in labor force participation imply smaller decreases in inequality and smaller fiscal gains than what is implied by Kremer's model, the increases in fertility might help sustain pension programs especially in countries with below-replacement fertility rates. Regardless of whether women choose to respond to immigrant inflows by increasing fertility or labor supply, this paper's finding that tradeoffs decrease in response to immigrant inflows implies welfare gains for the women making work-life decisions.

Figure 1. Proportion of Women Bearing Children and Participating in the Labor Force
Notes: The figure draws on data from the March Current Population Surveys (CPS), 1969-2001(King et al. 2010). The sample is comprised of women ages 18-39. We define "childbirth" and "recent motherhood" based on the presence of an own-child less than or equal to one year old in the household. Each series of data has been plotted after applying a 3-year moving average to smooth out year-to-year fluctuations.  The share recently given birth and participating in the labor market variable is the proportion of women in the cell that have given birth within the previous year and participate in the labor market. The fertility rate is the share of women in the cell who have given birth within the previous year. The tetrachoric correlation is a measure of association between the two binary variables, having recently given and birth and participating in the labor market. See the text for further details. Working age refers to ages 18-64 and low-skilled is defined as having at most a high school degree. Given that the sample contains no Hispanics and whites are the omitted category, the share other race variable refers to the share that is non-Hispanic, non-black, and non-white. This group consists mostly of Asians and American Indians. The share working age immigrant and the log of the mean income of male college graduates variables are calculated within MSA-year cells. All other variables are averages within MSA-year-age group cells. The two age groups in the sample are 22-31 and 32-42. There are 708 MSA-year-age group cells in the sample (118 MSAs, 3 years, and 2 age groups). When computing the statistics in this table, cells are weighted by the share of the population represented by the cell. Of these, 478 are in MSA-years with a low-skilled immigrant share at or below the mean in the sample. The remaining 230 are in MSA-years with immigrant shares above the mean. Number of Observations 708 708 708 708 Notes: The data consist of MSA-year-age group means of the dependent and explanatory variables for non-Hispanic U.S.-born college graduate women not enrolled in school. All equations include the explanatory variables described in the notes to Table  1. Each of the MSA-year-age group cells is weighted by the population of women represented by the cell, and the robust standard errors in parentheses are clustered by MSA. The marginal effects are the change in the underlying dependent variable that would be causes by the change in the share working age low-skilled immigrant experienced by the average member of the sample. *p < .10; **p < .05; ***p < .01  Table 2 for convenience. The indirect measure of the effect of low-skilled immigration, shown in column 5, is obtained by combining the estimates shown in columns 1-3 in the way described in the text. All models include time-varying region fixed effects, MSA fixed effects, age-group fixed effects, the log of income per male college graduate, and the following group-level characteristics: the proportion black, the proportion who are of another non-white race, and the proportion married. Each of the observation-cells is weighted by the population of women represented by the cell, and the robust standard errors in parentheses are clustered by MSA. Reported effects are the change in the underlying dependent variable that would be caused by the change in the share working age low-skilled immigrant experienced by the average member of the sample. *p < .10; **p < .05; ***p < .01 Table 3 Notes: Estimates in Panel A were constructed without California. Panel B uses the full sample but instead of two age groups (22-32, 33-43),MSA-year-age groups are constructed using three age groups (22-28, 29-35, 36-43). Panel C reverts to the two age groups but replaces the incidence of childbearing with marriage rates. Results reported in the first three columns were estimated using one regression run on stacked data for each of the three outcomes. All models include time-varying region 30 fixed effects, MSA fixed effects, age-group fixed effects, the log of income per male college graduate, and the following group-level characteristics: the proportion black, the proportion who are of another non-white race, and the proportion married. Each of the observation-cells is weighted by the population of women represented by the cell, and the robust standard errors in parentheses are clustered by MSA. Reported effects are the change in the underlying dependent variable that would be caused by the change in the share working age low-skilled immigrant experienced by the average member of the sample. *p < .10; **p < .05; ***p < .01 31