Academic libraries and the need for continuing professional development in Botswana

An academic librarian is expected to be skilled in the tasks they undertake and make quality services promptly available to users. This study aimed to determine academic librarians’ understanding of the changes in their profession and the need for continuing professional development; examine librarians’ perception of the quality of library and information science education in Botswana; and find out the extent to which academic librarians perform different library and professional functions. The research paradigm adopted was a positivist approach. Using the census method, quantitative data was collected from practising librarians and qualitative data was obtained from five library heads. The study established that there had been significant changes in the librarians’ jobs over the years, as they were currently required to work harder, learn more skills and perform new tasks. With no suitable continuing professional development strategy in place, there was a lack of adequate knowledge to perform information technology and other salient tasks. Appropriate recommendations are made.


Introduction
Teaching, learning and research are considered to be the three pillars on which higher education rests. Academic libraries play a critical role in underpinning the success of these three crucial areas through the adequate and well-timed provision of the information resources that are essential for high-quality scholarship. In pursuing this role, there is the issue of ever emerging information and communications technologies (ICTs), which libraries can adapt or adopt to provide effective services for their customers. Perceptibly, the world is witnessing unpredictable and changing times, heralding a new normal the likes of which have not been experienced before. The volatility of the times presupposes that library and information practitioners cannot rest on their laurels if they want to be relevant in their service to customers. Over the years, library practice in academic institutions has gone through a number of phases. Traditionally, the norm was that librarians would wait to be consulted in the library for their services. The tide would later change, and academic librarians had to go to their clientele in offices and classrooms to teach information literacy skills and market their services to them. Consequently, library users would submit themselves to training and orientation on the operationalization of the library systems. Library service was much easier as the basic education and training that librarians received in schools was probably more than enough to offer adequate services to users, who, as Cummings (2007) observes, would come to the library as their first stop for papers and projects.
Today, the advent of a new cohort of students, often referred to as 'millennials' or 'the Google generation', seems to present more challenges for librarians. This is the group that Prensky (2001) defines as 'digital natives' -a well-recognized younger generation who have grown up with new ICTs as an integral component of their everyday lives, and who have wholly new ways of thinking about and interacting with technology. The rapidity of development among digital natives has given rise to a new phase and modern generation, which Twenge (2017) describes as the 'iGen' -a cohort she categorizes as being born between 1995 and 2012. The iGen is said to be a generation that has been shaped by the smartphone and the concomitant rise of social media (Twenge, 2017); they spend their entire adolescence with smartphones, and, in this environment, social media and texting frequently replace traditional activities, leading users to change their attitudes and behaviours. For this group, there is little inclination to go to a library or seek librarians for help. Cummings (2007) believes that this group has alternative resources at their fingertips. Libraries are therefore compelled to prove, more than ever, that this generation's research needs can be better met through the library, whether online or in person.
Although trained to carry out their responsibilities as professional librarians, the reality is that the training received barely meets all the challenges that confront librarians at work. In their study, which evaluates the impact of academic liaison librarians on their user community, Cooke et al. (2011) acknowledge that the knowledge, skills and services that appear to be most highly valued by users may not reflect those on which the greatest emphasis is placed by those who are managing library services -or who are educating future library and information science (LIS) professionals. Oladokun et al. (2021) assert that the new paradigm in the information environment seems to work to keep academic librarians on their toes, even as some may find it hard to cope with the ever-changing developments. They underscore a disconcerting disconnect between the traditional education and training received by several practising librarians in developing countries and the modernday digital and/or virtual environment.
As if the challenge of new students not wanting to show up or seek assistance in a library were not enough, the advent of new systems of life and activities, especially with COVID-19 and its global dominance, seems to pose more serious challenges, threats and disruptions to the jobs of academic librarians. The protocols that came with the pandemic appear to bolster the unwillingness of some students and academic staff to stay away from libraries. Social distancing and the wearing of face masks have become the trend, while sneezing or coughing in public creates fear. As a consequence, library staff and their clientele now operate remotely. This strengthens the need for the invocation of continuing professional development (CPD) to assist librarians in becoming equipped to perform their functions with ease. CPD can facilitate new ideas that may be effectively deployed to provide appropriate services in both good and uncertain times.

Statement of the problem
The worth of an academic library can largely be seen in the quality of the learning, teaching and research that is generated in its institution. An academic library is expected to make quality services promptly available to its users as and when the need arises. Recent global developments occasioned by the COVID-19 pandemic have resulted in many changes in the workplace and demonstrated that most professionals appear ill-equipped to respond to the emerging challenges.
While the lecturers at many institutions of learning in Botswana appear to have promptly risen to the new challenges through the rapid adoption of online teaching, preliminary observations suggest that academic librarians are not sufficiently equipped to cope with the demands of the times. It follows that unless librarians regularly become updated and upskilled through CPD, they may not be able to cope effectively with the demands of today, using only the knowledge and skills acquired during their school years. It is evident that academic librarians cannot afford to be complacent and use old skills to tackle new demands and nascent new systems in the information environment. In order to ensure the satisfactory provision of library and information services in the ever-changing world of work, the CPD of the librarians should be considered obligatory, not only by the library management, but also by the academic librarians themselves. Given the education and training received in response to the large number of emerging challenges, this study examines the extent to which academic librarians in Botswana have been coping with various expectations at work.
A search through the extant literature on CPD in academic librarianship shows that very little research has been done on the subject in Botswana. This study is therefore considered appropriate to make a significant contribution to knowledge on the subject and how the gap could be filled.

Literature review
Recent developments in the academic world have demonstrated that libraries cannot be static, and neither can the librarians who offer services in them . Changes are being witnessed in academic library practice, and librarians are expected to adapt to these changes. Librarians therefore need to regularly update their knowledge to ensure promptness and efficiency in meeting the information needs of their clientele. Oladokun et al. (2021) claim that a thorough search of the literature on CPD in academic libraries or librarianship generally in Botswana showed that no ostensible work has been carried out on CPD. Relatedly, Moonasar and Underwood (2018) state that the information available on the perception of the need for CPD by the LIS sector in South Africa is limited. The reasons for the lack of take-up of CPD opportunities vary, from lack of finances to the reluctance of management to release staff to attend such courses.
In their consideration of the prospects for CPD for LIS professionals in Nigeria, Adomi and Nwalo (2003) affirm that the LIS profession is service-oriented and requires continually updated knowledge and skills for effective performance. The authors submit that library and information knowledge and skills are not acquired just once but have to be constantly updated. In their study on mapping the future for academic librarians, Pinfield et al. (2017) claim that libraries are changing, and envisage that the library that we know now will be different from the library of the next decade. Highlighting some of the strains on academic libraries, these authors assert that there are myriad political, economic and other pressures creating demands on higher education and libraries. In their comparative study of perceived work-related stress among the librarians in two academic libraries in southern Africa, Akakandelwa and Jain (2013) state that while the results show significant levels of stress between the two universities in seven stressful situations, the University of Botswana library staff experienced more stressful situations than staff at the University of Zambia library. Staley and Malenfant (2010) appear to lend credence to the above assertion in their report on the future thinking of academic librarians when they emphasize the notion that academic libraries are part of a larger ecosystem, and librarians should be consistently scanning the environment to look for signs of the changes that may come.
Even as libraries are changing, quality is expected by users with respect to the education received and services offered. Whitehall (1992), in a review of quality in library and information services, aptly states that if quality did not exist, it would have to be invented to satisfy a need. Quality can be measured by the performance of library staff. Adomi and Nwalo (2003) believe that the efficiency of any library or information centre in meeting the information needs of its clientele to a large extent depends on the calibre of the staff. As if to invent quality in library and information services, Mwaniki (2018) affirms that today's academic librarians' skills should be shaped by user needs. This probably accounts for the study by Ketlhoilwe and Molatedi (2015) at the University of Botswana. When they asked librarians about the technology skills they had, all of the respondents (100%) indicated that they had online search skills. Social media skills came in second with 61%, and the least reported skills included web design (23%), hardware troubleshooting (19%), software troubleshooting (13%) and web maintenance (6%). Interestingly, these authors indicate that their search of the literature revealed that the changing information-seeking patterns and behaviour of clients who are becoming less visible in the library calls for reference librarians not only to have online search skills, but also to have computer troubleshooting and web-design skills. In offering his view on the possible CPD quality preparation that academic libraries need to have and make for the challenges ahead, Kaur (2015) states that libraries must make strategic choices in four distinct domains -namely, virtual libraries, portal libraries, user-friendly libraries and collection-creation libraries. Kaur (2015) affirms that the digital future of academic libraries will consist of various aspects, such as e-literacy, Library 3.0, open access and context-aware computing.
In the same vein, Madge (2016), in a study conducted in Romania, reveals that most directors of academic libraries acknowledged that an ever-increasing level of digitization, the transformation of libraries into electronic libraries and the increased use of technologies constitute the main direction of academic libraries.
Madge believes that such measures are required to adapt to the changes in society and exhibit a greater involvement in community life, as well as interdependence with other areas. Madge further asserts that diversification, digitization and creativity are necessities for an academic library. Han andLiu (2009), Le (2015) and Madge (2016) are of the opinion that, in order to ensure quality, the following skills are necessary for an academic librarian in the new age: Training in using databases and electronic information resources in general, and library software; Skills in the use of discovery and delivery products and e-learning applications; Basic specialty education, which confers the skills necessary to provide traditional library activities and services; Managerial, planning, organization and coordination skills; Flexibility, creativity, teamwork and collaboration skills. Appleton et al. (2011) and Knight (2017) view academic librarians as change-makers. Specifically, Knight (2017) states that, in the digital era, academic librarians must readily accept, be responsive to and anticipate change to maintain and justify their relevance to stakeholders. Regrettably, Knight's findings indicate that not all librarians are prepared to embrace change. Knight (2017: 295) further explains that 'academic librarians must be knowledgeable of their libraries' strengths and weaknesses in relation to current trends and practices as well as the future direction of libraries with a view to formulating, implementing, and developing plans for continuous growth'. In the belief of the Association of College and Research Libraries (2012), technology continues to drive much of the futuristic thinking within academic libraries. The Association is emphatic that the key trends driving educational technology identified in the 2012 Horizon Report are equally applicable to academic libraries. The observed trends comprise people's desire for information and access to social media and networks anytime, anywhere; the acceptance and adoption of cloud-based technologies; more value placed on collaboration; challenges to the role of higher education in a world where information is ubiquitous and alternate forms of credentialing are available; new education paradigms that include online and hybrid learning; and a new emphasis on challenge-based and active learning. Ojedokun and Okafor (2015) also support the view that information sources are currently mainly in electronic formats, such as e-books and e-journals, which can only be accessed through the Internet and online databases. In this respect, they assert that all libraries are striving to provide a digital environment, therefore services for users should also involve e-services, which requires library staff to have ICT skills.
Whether in the current iteration or future direction of the academic library, CPD for academic librarians should be seen as a necessity for the attainment of success and relevance. Mathew et al. (2011) note that librarians engage in continuing education programmes for various reasons, including the need to acquire new skills, update their knowledge or basic education, get trained in the latest technologies, improve library services, train junior staff and improve relations with fellow professionals. In their literature review, Saleem and Ashiq (2020) observe that most of the efforts of CPD have been related to technical aspects, such as library automation, reference management software and searching techniques. They assert that there is an immediate need to offer CPD opportunities in areas where professionals are greatly lacking, including communication skills, library leadership, information/digital literacy skills and subject/domain knowledge. Ukach and Onuoha (2013) appear to support the above findings when they affirm that CPD is usually driven by several factors, including an appreciation of the information challenges encountered by users in the electronic information environment and the desire to acquire the relevant skills necessary for responding effectively to the information needs of users.
Librarians have diverse opinions and perceptions with regard to CPD. Alawadhi (2015), Anwar and Warraich (2013) and Moonasar and Underwood (2018) note the views of librarians that CPD programmes are important for developing a professional workforce and maintaining professional competence, improving one's knowledge, improving the effectiveness of service delivery within the library, and allowing for a better understanding of ICTs and their impact on libraries. While these authors affirm that personal motivation is a major factor that helps one engage in CPD activities, they also suggest that CPD should be provided by professional library associations. In its contribution to the debate, the IFLA's (2021) Continuing Professional Development and Workplace Learning Section sums up its view when it affirms that new developments and trends in ICT, the higher expectations of users, the requirements of employers and managers of libraries and information service organizations, and competition from information professionals in the broader information industry emphasize the imperative for associations and institutions to be 'learning organizations' and develop their staff by providing opportunities for CPD and training in the workplace, and for individuals to be responsible for their own career planning and development.

Objectives of the study
The main objective of the study was to assess the performance of academic libraries in the new age in Botswana, with the belief that CPD would be a major factor. Specifically, the study aimed to: Determine academic librarians' understanding of the developments or changes in their profession over the years and the need for CPD in Botswana; Examine librarians' perception of the quality of LIS education in Botswana; Determine the extent to which academic librarians in Botswana perform different library tasks and professional functions.

Research methodology
This study adopted a mixed-methods approach. Integrating the elements and benefits of both quantitative research and qualitative research, George (2021) states that mixed methods can assist in gaining a more complete picture than a stand-alone quantitative or qualitative study. This study is a continuation of Oladokun et al.'s (2021) work, which used only quantitative data. The current study adopted both a quantitative and a qualitative approach. Furthermore, in terms of their objectives, research questions and findings, the two studies differ significantly.
The neXus1 and neXus2 survey instruments, developed by Hallam (2008) for the Australian Library and Information Association, were adopted for this study, after permission had been granted. The questionnaire largely consisted of closed-ended questions with a five-point Likert scale to measure the level of agreement or disagreement of the respondents. It was distributed both through email and self-administration to academic librarians in Botswana. The sampling technique adopted was a census technique, involving all professional librarians in each of the institutions that participated in the study. The participating institutions numbered 18 and comprised all four public universities in Botswana, three degree-awarding private institutions, two other public degree-awarding institutions, three colleges of education, five institutes of health sciences and one degreeawarding vocational technical college. In order to gain enhanced insight and clarify some possible grey areas on CPD-related issues, semi-structured interviews were arranged to source data from five purposively selected high-level professionals, comprising the heads of three academic libraries, the president of the Botswana Library Association, and the head of the Department of Library and Information Studies at the University of Botswana.
Of the 197 copies of the questionnaire distributed, 116 usable copies were returned, providing a 58.9% response rate. All of the five targeted professionals for interviews were available. The Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS) Version 24 was used for the quantitative data analysis. The data collected for the study was collated and analysed using the descriptive statistics of frequency counts, percentages, means and standard deviations. The qualitative data was thematically analysed and presented in response to the relevant objectives of the study.

Demographic characteristics
As shown in Table 1, the respondents were split by gender, with females numbering 76 (65.5%), which was more than double the number of male respondents, at 36 (31.0%). Table 2 shows the place of study of the respondents. They had been asked where they trained for their library qualifications. The findings show that 89 (76.8%) respondents did their study in Botswana, while 23 (19.8%) studied outside Botswana and 4 (3.4%) did not respond to the question. By virtue of the University of Botswana being the only institution having LIS as a programme in the country until about four years ago, it can be said that most -if not all -of the respondents who claimed that they had studied in Botswana were products of the University of Botswana.
With regard to programme completion, 76 (65.5%) respondents indicated that they had graduated more than five years ago, 35 (30.2%) had completed their studies less than five years ago, and five (4.3%) omitted to answer the question. The details are shown in Table 3.
The respondents were asked to indicate if they were members of the Botswana Library Association or not. As can be observed from Table 4, of the total of 116 respondents, less than half (49 or 42.2%) claimed that they were registered members of the Botswana Library Association, while 64 (55.2%) indicated that they were not members. The implication is that whenever the Botswana Library Association organizes CPD programmes, as it occasionally does, not all academic librarians will directly benefit from them. According to its president, the Association often organizes programmes for its members.

Librarians' understanding of developments or changes in their profession
The first objective of the study sought to gauge academic librarians' perception of what they considered had changed in their profession over the last five years or more. To achieve this, a five-point Likert scale (1 ¼ strongly disagree to 5 ¼ strongly agree) was adopted. The respondents were asked to tick the option they considered the most appropriate for each of the statements presented. In the analysis, the Likert scale options were aggregated into three options -that is, strongly agree and agree were combined into agree ¼ 4; neutral stood alone; and strongly disagree and disagree were combined into disagree ¼ 2. The analysis involved calculating the frequencies, percentages and means of the responses, as well as the standard deviation (SD) for each statement. As shown in  disagreed. In line with the other statements with high means, 'I am now required to perform a wider variety of tasks' also received a significant response, with a mean of 3.91 and SD of 1.15. The findings show that 68 (68.6%) respondents agreed with this statement, 16 (16.2%) were neutral and 15 (15.1%) disagreed. The reactions of the respondents to two seemingly opposing statements -'My job is currently more interesting' and 'I am currently less motivated to do my work' -are worthy of note. The former recorded a mean of 3.69 and SD of 1.14, with 59 (57.9%) respondents agreeing with the statement, 29 (28.4%) neutral and 14 (13.8%) disagreeing. The latter resulted in a mean of 3.21 and SD of 1.27, with 41 (41.0%) respondents agreeing with the statement, 32 (32.0%) neutral and 26 (26.0%) disagreeing. Even when asked to respond to 'My job is currently more stressful', the mean recorded was 3.14 and the SD was 1.24, with those who agreed numbering 31 (31.0%) and about the same number of respondents being neutral (33 or 33.0%) or disagreeing (34 or 34.0%). The other details are as shown in Table 5. An attempt was made to solicit the opinions of the interviewees on the changes that they had observed in their profession over the past five years or more. All of the interviewees indicated that things had changed. One of the respondents remarked: Though it appears odd, the reality today is, it is the library that is now on the trail of the students and, surprisingly, many academic staff as well, to come to the library and be served. We strategize and go out in search of the students and lecturers to market our services and request to serve them.
Another respondent commented: You know, we are in the age of technology now and, of a truth, several of our students and lecturers are far ahead of the librarians in the use of ICT to obtain their information needs. Many of them do not feel the need to ask for assistance from the library.
Another respondent observed: 'While some of our librarians have adequate education on paper, they lack practical hands-on training to effectively execute their duties as required today'. Another respondent also said 'unlike in the time past, the new dawn in the profession demands that librarians are creative, innovative and self-directed to function effectively in meeting the information needs of the new knowledgeable, highly enterprising and technologically knowhow users' When asked if librarians had adequate access to CPD to enable them to cope with the trends in the profession, the general consensus was that libraries tried to create opportunities and assist librarians within the limits of the funds available. In her response, one of the respondents disclosed that the 'library is not catered for like academic departments in terms of funding and this has limited our effort to adequately provide CPD to staff'. Another respondent appeared to indict librarians when noting: 'While there is a lot to learn for better and improved performances, many librarians unfortunately fail to take it [CPD] as a personal responsibility; they limit themselves only to what the management is able to offer'.

Perceived quality of LIS education in Botswana
As shown in Table 2, 89 (76.8%) of the respondents were trained in Botswana and the rest travelled overseas for their professional qualification. Considering the fact that the majority of the respondents (76, 65.5%) had practised academic librarianship for more than five years, as shown in Table 3, the second objective of the study was to examine librarians' perception of the quality of LIS education in Botswana from the perspective of the respondents. They were asked to indicate the extent to which they believed their LIS education had prepared them with the necessary skills to work or operate. The responses were computed based on a five-point Likert scale in a similar manner to the first objective. The analysis involved computing the frequencies, percentages and means of the responses, as well as the SD for each statement. 'Quality of education provides me with general skills' was the statement that attracted the highest mean (4.23) and SD (0.99), where 93 (85.5%) respondents agreed with the statement, 10 (9.1%) were neutral or undecided, and only 6 (5.5%) disagreed. This was closely followed by those who claimed that, with their education, they 'Can apply what I learnt to what I do in my library job'. The results of this statement revealed a high mean of 4.15 and SD of 0.88, with 94 (87.8%) respondents in agreement, 7 (6.5%) neutral and 6 (5.6%) in disagreement. The perceptions of the respondents also revealed a significant response to their education providing them with 'Information technology skills', yielding a mean of 3.85 and SD of 1.00, with 84 (77.3%) respondents agreeing with the statement, 11 (10.3%) neutral and 12 (11.1%) disagreeing.
Considering how the education they had received had provided them with a 'Realistic depiction about what it is like to work as a library and information professional', the overall mean was 3.84 and the SD was 0.98. The findings reveal that 77 (74.8%) respondents agreed with this statement, 16 (15.5%) were neutral and 10 (9.7%) disagreed. On the 'management skills' received through training, a mean of 3.61 and SD of 0.96 were recorded, with 64 (59.2%) respondents agreeing that the skills prepared them to work in a library, 30 (28.7%) neutral and 13 (12.1%) disagreeing. The acquisition of 'problem-solving skills' was also examined, and the results reveal a mean of 3.59 and SD of 1.05, with 64 (60.2%) respondents agreeing with the statement, 27 (25.0%) neutral and 16 (14.8%) disagreeing. Similarly, on the respondents' perception of learning 'leadership skills' through their LIS education, the results show a mean of 3.54 and SD of 1.03, with 62 (58.3%) in agreement, 29 (26.9%) neutral and 16 (14.8%) in disagreement. In last place is 'Quality of education provides me with business skills', where a mean of 3.19 and SD of 1.17 were recorded. A total of 40 (38.0%) respondents agreed, 38 (35.2%) were neutral and 29 (26.8%) disagreed. Further details are presented in Table 6.
When asked during the interviews of their thoughts on the quality and/or current state of library education in Botswana, one respondent expressed their regrets: 'There is a vast gap between what library school follows as theory and what the practitioners experience or what the organizations need'. Seemingly in support of this assertion, another interviewee commented: 'There is need to engage more with industry to ensure that the curriculum talks to the needs of industry'. This respondent affirmed that the 'current curriculum is more on theory than industrial experience'. Another respondent stated that 'the training of Botswana library education is largely traditional'. Only one of the respondents interviewed believed that the training was excellent. A follow-up question asking about their beliefs regarding whether librarians were adequately educated for their current roles generated further adverse comments. One respondent asserted: 'Quite a number of our librarians lack the skills to flexibly adapt to the ever-changing needs'. While also admitting that Botswana's librarians were not adequately educated for their current roles, another respondent was of the view that librarians lack the knowledge that the market needs. Only one respondent believed that 'the librarians coming from the University of Botswana are adequately trained for their current roles'. This respondent, however, noted that the environment in their workplace was demoralizing for librarians.

Academic librarians' performance of different library tasks
The study also aimed to determine the frequency and current range of the academic librarians' performance of different tasks and professional functions in Botswana. In pursuit of this, library tasks were categorized into five groups. Table 7 presents two categories -Collection Development/Public Service and Technical and Bibliographic Services -while Table 8 contains three groups -Information Technology, Administration/Management, and Professional Development and Participation. In each category, a number of related tasks were listed. The respondents were questioned on the extent to which they performed the tasks listed in each of the groups. In the questionnaire, a five-point Likert scale (1 ¼ never to 5 ¼ very often) was used. The respondents were provided with statements to measure the extent of their performance of the library tasks. In the analysis, the Likert scale options were aggregated into three options -that is, never stood alone; rarely and sometimes were combined into 2 ¼ occasionally; and often and very often were combined into 3 ¼ frequently. The analysis  involved computing the frequencies, percentages and means of the responses, as well as the SD for each task. For Collection Development/Public Service, the task of 'Instruction in information literacy, library use, library resources and research' recorded a high mean of 4.08 and SD of 1.15. The findings show that 80 (72.1%) respondents frequently performed this task, 25 (22.5%) occasionally performed it and only 6 (5.4%) indicated they never carried out the task. 'Reference, information service and research support' received an overall mean of 3.95 and SD of 1.17, with 75 (67.5%) respondents performing the task frequently, 30 (27.0%) occasionally and 6 (5.4%) never. With respect to 'liaison activities', a mean of 3.65 and SD of 1.31 were recorded, where 69 (62.7%) respondents performed the task frequently, 28 (25.5%) occasionally and 13 (11.8%) never. The task of 'Collection development, evaluation and management' recorded a mean of 3.60 and SD of 1.24, with 64 (57.2%) respondents indicating that they performed the task frequently, 39 (34.8%) occasionally and 9 (8.0%) never.
In the second group, Technical and Bibliographic Services, the task of 'Sorting, shelving and filling of library resources' recorded a high mean of 4.14 and SD of 1.29, where 84 (74.4%) respondents frequently performed this task, 21 (18.6%) occasionally performed it and only 8 (7.1%) never did. The task of 'Circulation and discharge of library resources' recorded a mean of 3.67 and SD of 1.56, with 70 (63.1%) respondents performing the task frequently, 23 (20.7%) occasionally and 18 (16.2%) never. 'Database content management and organization of information resources' was another task that was examined. It resulted in a mean of 3.24 and SD of 1.57, with only 56 (50.4%) respondents frequently performing the task, 27 (24.3%) occasionally carrying it out and 28 (25.2%) never doing it. For 'Acquisition, receipt and payment of library resources', a mean of 3.05 and SD of 1.63 were recorded. The findings reveal that 50 (45.5%) respondents carried out the function frequently, 29 (26.4%) occasionally and 31 (28.2%) never. Other details are as detailed in Table 7.
Further, with regard to academic librarians' performance of tasks and professional functions, the heads of the libraries were asked, after showing them the tasks and functions listed in Tables 7 and 8, which they thought librarians needed CPD training on. All of the interviewees concurred that librarians would benefit from occasional updating and reskilling on virtually all the tasks and functions listed, though some might require more training than others. One of the interviewees commented: 'You cannot dismiss any of these functions. As a matter of fact, comprehensive as your list may appear to be, I'm not oblivious to the possibility that some may have been skipped, but are equally necessary'. When asked if they thought librarians had adequate education and training for their various roles, one of the respondents remarked that while librarians appeared to 'have adequate education on paper, they lack practical hands-on training to effectively execute their duties'. Another said that she did 'not believe the librarians had adequate training for the various tasks and functions expected of them in practice', adding that 'they however learn on the job'. Another view was that quite a number of academic librarians appear to have only grasped the theoretical aspects of their training and fail to relate, or find it difficult to apply, theory to practice.
When asked to indicate the approach their libraries followed in respect of the task of staff development, the interviewees indicated that they organized CPD on an ad hoc basis, subject to the availability of funds and urgency of needs. They indicated that as much as they would have liked to have had a formal and documented approach, the lack of funds was a hindrance. One of the respondents said: 'Library staff is not given the type of reckoning extended to academic staff in terms of funding for research and allowing them time off to engage in activities that promote CPD'. Another respondent noted: 'Since librarians are considered as support staff, other issues considered core are given priority over libraries by management of the institution'. Another respondent affirmed: 'There is always a cry for funding to support training, but we encourage staff to take CPD as their personal responsibility'.
In Table 8, the results of the three categories of Information Technology, Administration/Management and Professional Development and Participation are presented. Virtually all of the tasks listed under Information Technology recorded a low mean, which would seem to indicate underperformance or a deficit in information technology tasks. For instance, 'Database systems creation and management' as a task recorded an overall mean of 1.85 and SD of 1.33, with only 16 (14.6%) respondents frequently performing this task, 22 (20.0%) occasionally performing it and a huge 72 (65.5%) never performing the task. Similarly, 'Network management and technical support' yielded a mean of 1.84 and SD of 1.31, with only 17 (15.6%) respondents performing the task frequently, 24 (22.0%) occasionally and a significant 68 (62.4%) never. The last itemized task in this group -'Web and/or intranet development and management'recorded a paltry mean of 1.75 and SD of 1.29; only 17 (15.5%) respondents performed this task frequently, 18 (16.4%) occasionally and a huge 75 (68.2%) never. These results seem to give an indication of the reasons why academic librarians may not be able to promptly adopt ICT to provide services for their clientele.
Administration/Management, as observed in Table 8, constitutes another group of professional functions. It is senior professionals who function mostly in this group. It is therefore no surprise that the mean trends low in most of the tasks tested. 'Supervision and evaluation of personnel' as a task recorded a mean of 3.01 and SD of 1.68, with 55 (49.5%) respondents frequently performing the task, 19 (17.1%) carrying it out occasionally and 37 (33.3%) never doing it. 'Marketing and public relations', as another task that should be performed by every librarian, recorded a mean of 2.97 and SD of 1.30, with only 38 (34.2%) respondents performing the task frequently, 54 (48.6%) occasionally and 19 (17.1%) never. Other details can be seen in Table 8.
The last of the groupings is Professional Development and Participation. The questionnaire sought to determine the extent of the academic librarians' participation in the listed professional development activities. 'Attend formal conferences, workshops and training events' was one of the tasks listed here, and it yielded a mean of 3.11 and SD of 1.23, with 41 (36.9%) respondents claiming they participated in the task frequently, 55 (49.5%) occasionally and 15 (13.5%) never. 'Participate in professional organizations' was another task tested. It resulted in a mean of 2.85 and SD of 1.39, with 42 (38.9%) respondents indicating that they frequently performed the task, 40 (37.0%) that they performed it occasionally and 26 (24.1%) that they never carried it out. 'Research and publishing in the field of study' was also tested and yielded a low mean of 1.89 and SD of 1.14, with only 11 (10.4%) respondents saying they performed the function frequently, 38 (35.8%) occasionally and a huge 57 (53.8%) never. When questioned about whether academic librarians ought to carry out research and publish or not, virtually all of the interviewees indicated the need for them to publish. One of them asked "where is the pride of an academic librarian who assists the faculty and researchers in acquiring and delivering appropriate research materials and recuse themselves from the task of research and publishing?"

Discussion
This study has uncovered a number of issues that reveal the professional practice of academic librarians in relation to CPD in Botswana. The issues revolve around the changes that have taken place in the job of an academic librarian over the years, the perception of the quality of LIS education in Botswana, and differences of opinion between academic librarians and their managers with regard to performance, knowledge and skills of the former. It also highlights the performance of different library tasks and functions by librarians and the yawning gap librarians will need to bridge to cope effectively with the trends in the modern age of information dissemination.
With respect to the changes experienced in their job over the past years, the study reveals that more than 70% of the respondents were of the view that they were currently required to work harder, learn more skills and carry out new tasks. The implication of this finding is that, to provide effective services for their numerous and diverse clientele, librarians must buckle down, bridge the gaps and be prepared to learn either through self-development or libraryorganized CPD activities. Adomi and Nwalo (2003) appear to confirm this assertion when they note that the LIS profession is service-oriented and requires continually updated knowledge and skills for effective performance. Other statements that attracted significant responses include the requirement to perform a wider variety of tasks and more hightech tasks. The findings fall below expectation from both the quantitative survey administered to the librarians and the qualitative information offered during the interviews. For instance, the library heads stated that most of the new and more wide-ranging tasks that were required to be performed were ICTrelated . This seems to be in accordance with the observation of Ojedokun and Okafor (2015) that libraries now allocate more space to ICT-related facilities and services, including online digital services. The librarians' lack of skills in ICT and LIS training in Botswana were issues that came up for discussion. For instance, the heads of the libraries interviewed did not see many of the information technology skills that librarians possessed on display in their work, culminating in the aspersion that 'the training of Botswana library education is largely traditional'. Moreover, when the information technology tasks are spelt out in Table 8, under the performance of academic librarians in different library tasks, the results reveal that these tasks were performed considerably less frequently or the majority of librarians did not perform information technology tasks. This implies the frailty of academic librarians with regard to information technology skills. Han and Liu (2009), Le (2015) and Madge (2016) believe that, for effective, high-quality modern-day services, academic librarians must be skilled in information technology and specifically trained in using databases and electronic information resources in general, library software, the use of discovery and delivery products, and e-learning applications. Also, writing on the impact of information technology in Nigerian university libraries, Ubogu (2019) advocates adequate provision for training and retraining in information technology skills for all librarians to enable them to work in the digital age.
Academic librarians perform numerous tasks, including interlibrary loan activities; the creation and maintenance of bibliographic records; instruction in information literacy, library use, library resources and research; sorting, shelving and filling of library resources; administration and management; professional development; participation in and attendance of formal conferences, workshops and training events; research and publishing in the field of study; and participating in professional organizations. They were found wanting in attending formal conferences, workshops and training events, and should be supported to do so. Oladokun et al.'s (2021) findings reveal that while 57 (49.1%) respondents claimed they had attended conferences, only 27 (23.3%) -less than half -had published or presented a paper. Table 8 in the present study also shows a low mean of 1.89 with regard to 'Research and publishing in the field of study'. This reveals gross nonchalance towards this task. Writing on the importance of encouraging librarians to publish, Lamothe (2012) observes that advancement in any field can only be achieved when participants share their ideas and experiences. He then asks: What happens when colleagues express hesitation, apprehension, lack of interest and, in some cases, outright hostility toward publishing? He believes that by relaying his publishing experiences, both positive and negative, as an academic librarian, he may alleviate the fear, doubt and resistance that some feel towards publishing their results and ideas, particularly in peer-reviewed journals. He suggests that librarians could partner with other researchers and faculty to publish their work. Crampsie et al. (2020) assert that scholarly publishing is an expectation for many academic librarians. Citing a survey by Kennedy and Brancolini (2018) on early career academic librarians, Crampsie et al believe that academic librarians could benefit from additional graduate training in research methods. Participating in professional organizations is another area of weakness noted in the study, where only 49 (42.2%) respondents claimed membership of the Botswana Library Association. The implication is that when the Botswana Library Association organizes CPD activities, the majority of academic librarians in Botswana may not attend. Ossai-Ugbah (2013) asserts that professional associations and institutions are an excellent way to gain knowledge of one's industry or network, and to keep on top of current news affecting one's industry. She therefore affirms that membership of associations also shows your employer and your peers that you are serious about your commitment to your career.
The findings on the existence of staff development programmes reveal a near absence of any plans of note for academic librarians in Botswana. At best, the arrangements in Botswana are ad hoc. The library heads interviewed complained that libraries were not being adequately funded and that librarians were not given the same treatment as lecturers or teaching staff. This result is at variance with findings from Indonesia and Australia. Maesaroh (2012) observes that 59.4% of library managers in Indonesia had a planned staff development programme and 21.7% adopted an informal approach, while 18.8% regarded staff development as primarily the responsibility of individual staff members. In Australia, Hallam (2008) notes that 77.8% of library managers had a planned programme for staff development and 22.2% adopted an informal approach. Unlike in Botswana, where almost all library heads would consider staff development as the primary responsibility of the individual, Hallam's findings reveal that no library managers in Australia considered staff development as the primary responsibility of individual staff members.

Conclusion and recommendations
The education and training that professionals receive in library school usually prepares them for effective performance once a job has been secured. This study has established that situations can arise at work where professionals may find themselves ill-equipped with their previous knowledge or skills acquired in training, and consequently need to acquire more skills, work harder, learn new tasks and perform a wider variety of tasks. The question may arise as to whether librarians are effectively coping in their handling of various challenges that come their way at work. The results of this study of academic librarians do not subscribe to such an assertion. While academic librarians may not be harsh when assessing themselves, the accounts obtained from their supervisors indicate that librarians face serious challenges and are consequently not able to cope effectively.
More than ever, the library workforce, like other professions, is being confronted by challenges and manifold threats, not only from the volatile period through which we are living, but also from the difficulty of offering satisfactory services to their diverse, ubiquitous but also knowledgeable and technologically savvy clientele. New systems of life and activity are emerging in library and information service and the old systems of providing service are incapable of providing satisfactory performance in the new era. It therefore appears that changes and developments, which were never envisaged or taught about in library schools, are now being experienced from (potential) information-seekers. In times of emergency and an age when library users are technologically savvy, a librarian who is a technophobe or does not possess adequate information technology skills is not likely to be beneficial or relevant in the library and information service space. It is therefore essential to reskill librarians to help them swim with the new tide in the workplace. It is important for the library workforce to leapfrog into the new work environment and be relevant. To this end, CPD is critical in ensuring that the skills and competencies of the library workforce are upgraded to enable more effective performance in the diverse provision of expected services to library customers.
In light of the findings from the study, the following recommendations naturally flow: Formal staff development programmes should be drawn up and local experts should be consulted. With the findings showing a near absence of staff development programmes and the funding to execute them, library managers/ directors should not hesitate to draw up their own staff development programmes and look internally to execute them. There are many experts within and outside the university whom an academic library could partner with to assist librarians in training and development. The library school is also available for assistance. The library school should be engaged. The interviewees acknowledged that academic libraries were not doing enough to make use of the advantages of the library school in Botswana, where most of them had completed their studies. Academic libraries should sufficiently engage with the library school to help achieve quality services, teaching and research outcomes, as well as develop CPD programmes. Through engagement, the notion expressed by some library managers during the interviews that the training offered to students in the school was 'more theoretical than the industrial experience' will also be nipped in the bud.
Information technology needs special attention in CPD. As observed in Table 8, few librarians performed the information technology tasks listed. In the new digital age, librarians need to be properly trained in information technology skills to be able to help themselves and the users they serve effectively. Librarians should not have to wait for an information technology specialist every time the need arises to troubleshoot a problem. Information technology knowledge and competencies will also enable librarians to adapt emerging technologies to serve their clientele more appropriately, both in person and remotely. Librarians could partner with educators and academics to carry out research and publish in their field of study. The findings in Table 8 reveal that while many academic librarians attended conferences, workshops and seminars, only a handful had participated in research and publishing, with a remarkably low mean of 1.89. Therefore, as part of their CPD programmes, librarians could collaboratively partner with researchers in their institutions to gain experience and confidence in researching and writing acceptable papers for publication. Academic libraries should assist with registering their staff for membership of local professional associations. As indicated in Table 4, about three-fifths of the respondents claimed non-membership of the Botswana Library Association and barely participated in any of the Association's activities. A situation where less than half of the total respondents were registered as members of the Botswana Library Association is considered unsatisfactory. Table 8, under Professional Development and Participation, also confirms the fear of the inadequacy of participation in the activities of professional organizations. It is therefore recommended that each academic library subscribe to the Botswana Library Association on behalf of its staff so that all librarians can be members and benefit from the activities of the Association, including its CPD programmes.