Distribution of vultures in Uttar Pradesh, India

Acknowledgements: This work was done while the author was Chief Conservator of Forests, Eco-Development, Lucknow UP. The administrative support of Chief Wildlife Warden of UP is duly acknowledged. The field staff is also acknowledged for population estimation and other data collection work. Shri Suresh Chaudhary and Shri Fazlur Rahman are thanked for providing some photographs. Special thanks are due to Dr M.D. Omprakash, IIFM, Bhopal for preparing the GPS based maps. Abstract: As carrion feeders vultures play an important ecological role. Counts and qualitative assessments were done over three seasons to assess the richness and abundance of vultures in Uttar Pradesh during 2010–11. Of nine species found in India, Uttar Pradesh has six: Egyptian Vulture Neophron percnopterus (45.9%), Slender-billed Vulture Gyps tenuirostris (25.4%), Indian Vulture (Long-billed Vulture) Gyps indicus (16.8%), White-rumped Vulture Gyps bengalensis (10.3%), Red-headed Vulture (King Vulture) Sarcogyps calvus (0.8%) and Himalayan Griffon Gyps himalayensis (0.7%). We observed a total of 1993 adults and 91 juveniles, with the Tarai region having the greatest species richness and abundance. Nesting tree species included Silk Cotton Bombax ceiba, Teak Tectona grandis, Haldu Haldina cordifolia and Sissoo Dalbergia sissoo. A qualitative assessment indicated that the vulture population had declined in the past 10–15 years, with the main causes being the use of diclofenac, shortage of food and habitat loss. Disposal of dead animals was mainly done by removing carcasses to village outskirts, where dogs, crows and egrets compete with vultures. Such a small number of avian scavengers in a large area like Uttar Pradesh should be protected by ensuring safe and sufficient food, recovery from accidents and rehabilitation, and a protected environment.


INTRODUCTION
Vultures feed on carrion including discarded dead animals, which makes them an important component of the ecosystem. They also play an important cultural role in southern Asia (parts of India, Nepal and Tibet) as they consume human cadavers which are left in the open during ritual sky-burials (Singh 1999;GON 2009;Liu et al. 2013). The decline of the vulture population in the Indian subcontinent has removed a major scavenger population, with effects on other scavenging species and the incidence of putrefying carcasses, both of which have associated disease risks for wildlife, livestock and humans (GOI 2006).
India has nine species of vultures in the wild., viz.: Oriental White-backed (White-rumped) Vulture Gyps bengalensis, Slender-billed Vulture Gyps tenuirostris, Long-billed (Indian) Vulture Gyps indicus, Egyptian Vulture Neophron percnopterus, Red-headed (King) Vulture Sarcogyps calvus, Indian Griffon Vulture Gyps fulvus, Himalayan Griffon Gyps himalayensis, Cinereous Vulture Aegypius monachus and Bearded Vulture or Lammergeier Gypaetus barbatus (GOI 2006). Vultures are known to inhabit tall trees in forests, smaller trees in open areas, rocky cliffs, old monuments and the countryside (Thompson et al. 1990;Liberatori & Penteriani 2001;Donazar et al. 2002b Vultures are known to colonize wooded as well as open habitats with agriculture and tree cover (Robinson 1994;Donazar et al. 2002a,b). On the basis of forest and vegetation cover, Uttar Pradesh (UP) has been divided into three major eco-zones: the Tarai (moist deciduous forests), the Gangetic plains (agriculture landscape) and the Bundelkhand (dry deciduous forests) including Vindhyan regions (Islam & Rahmani 2004). The file record of the UP Forest Department suggested that the western part of the Gangetic plains, with a drier climate and ravined landscape, is different from the main Gangetic plains and thus could be categorized separately as a semi-arid zone. Knowledge of ecological factors in the habitat affecting large scale distribution and abundance of endangered species is an important tool for defining management recommendations (Sutherland & Green 2004). Vultures inhabiting varying habitats have declined from many parts of their former ranges owing mainly to food shortage and loss of 6751 habitat (Satheesan 1999;Pain et al. 2003). Thus the objective of this study is to assess species richness and abundance, ecology and conservation issues related to vulture species in varied eco-zones of UP and to keep the records for future reference.

Study site
Uttar Pradesh is one of the northern states of India with a tropical climate and a wide range of temperature fluctuation from 2-48 0 C. There are three main seasons, summer from March to mid-June, rainy season from mid-June to September and winter from October to February. There is great variation in rainfall from 600-2500 mm (Rahmani et al. 2011).
All the forest divisions (FD), the district level administrative units of the forest department of UP spread over the whole state (23 0 52'-30 0 24'N & 77 0 5'-84 0 38'E) were involved in vulture survey and counting. A preliminary survey was done before the main counting which resulted in the identification of FD where vultures were historically reported to be seen. Sites of vulture roosting and nesting were searched and marked on the basis of physical and oral evidence in the respective FD during this survey exercise. These potential vulture sites were revisited for vulture counting and other data collection.

Population estimation
Three vulture counts were undertaken in different seasons: rainy season (August 2010), summer (May 2011) and winter (December 2011). The population estimation protocol was revised and improved after every count. All the vultures seen were counted during the first estimation in different forest beats of Territorial and Social Forestry divisions in the span of one week (second week of August 2010), assuming that vultures would not have changed their roosting or nesting sites during such a short period. In the second estimation a particular day was fixed (15 May 2011) for summer population estimation of vultures to avoid double counting in case of movement of vultures to another territory. Pre-estimation exercises were conducted to locate the roosting and nesting sites in advance. This time the coordinates of vulture sites were recorded and an attempt was made to identify the vulture species. 15 December 2011 was fixed for the third or winter population estimation keeping in view the arrival of migratory vultures during this period. An

Population
The minimum number of vultures seen in the state over three seasons: rainy season, summer and winter during 2010 and 2011 were 2125, 2097 and 2029, respectively (average 2084). Out of these vulture populations, juveniles were recorded at 4.2%, 4.0% and 4.5%, in respective seasons. Eco-zone distribution of total vultures in rainy season was 1452, 639, 33 and 1; in summer 1237, 643, 110 and 107; and in winter 964, 279, 406 and 380, respectively in Tarai, Bundelkhand-Vindhyan, Gangetic and semi-arid eco-zones. This showed that the bulk of the vulture population was confined to Tarai and Bundelkhand-Vindhyan eco-zones.
Altogether six vulture species were recorded in the state during the winter season. They were Egyptian Vulture, Himalayan Griffon, Red-headed Vulture, Indian Vulture, Slender-billed Vulture, and Whiterumped Vulture. There was a report of one group of Cinereous Vulture, in Tarai region after a couple of days of the counting day (Image 1). Species wise population distribution in order of decrease was Egyptian Vulture > Slender-billed Vulture > Indian Vulture > White-rumped Vulture > Red-headed Vulture > Himalayan Griffon (Fig.  1).

Distribution
The vultures were represented in all the four ecozones but were missing in many districts of the state. The districts where vulture presence was recorded in all the three seasons were Bahraich, Balrampur, Bijnore, Lakhimpur Khiri, Maharajganj, Pilibhit, and Shravasti (Tarai eco-zone) and Banda, Jhansi and Lalitpur (Bundelkhand-Vindhyan eco-zone). When considering vulture occurrence in at least one season, the additional districts having vulture distribution were Agra and additional exercise of intensive identification of vulture species was taken up during this estimation. For this a training workshop for the trainers was conducted and an identification booklet (Jha et al. 2011) was provided. The number of unidentified vultures was distributed proportionately to the recorded species. Flying vultures were not included in the count in any of the three population estimation exercises.
A team of two members, an observer and a data recorder, visited the potential vulture sites on the designated day(s) based on the pre-counting survey or the known area for vultures in all the vulture ranges (operational unit of a FD). Altogether 100 sites were visited by 58 members (29 teams) in the summer estimation while 144 sites were covered by 84 personnel (42 teams) in the winter estimation. They counted the number of vultures (adult and juvenile) and nests, recorded the details of roosting and nesting sites including geographical location. Binoculars, GPS instrument and a predesigned format were used for data recording. Data were compiled forest division wise and then district wise.

Map generation
Thematic maps providing roosting and nesting location of vulture population and species distribution were prepared by using geographical locations. Arc GIS 9.3 was used for the conversion of GPS reading to spatial data layer (point features providing the location). Vulture locations were overlaid on the state map. Using the retrieval function various thematic figures were designed.

Qualitative data
A questionnaire survey was conducted about vulture ecology like, habitat use, availability of trophic resources, other competitors for carrion, conservation issues etc. among the forest guards and the villagers of the FDs where vultures were recorded. Three-hundredeighty-two completed questionnaires returned out of 500 circulated ones, 20 each in 25 vulture districts.
Some of the secondary data like cattle population, forest cover, and wild animals other than big cats, used in this article were adopted from UPFS (2010).

RESULTS
The qualitative perception of the respondents (n=374) indicated that the vulture population had declined in the past 10-15 years and the main cause Etawah (semi-arid eco-zone), Basti, Gonda, Gorakhpur, Saharanpur and Sidharth Nagar (Tarai eco-zone), Chitrakoot, Mirzapur and Sonbhadra (Bundelkhand-Vindhyan eco-zone) and Etah, Firozabad, Gautambudh Nagar, Mainpuri, and Unnao (Gangetic eco-zone). Other districts in the state were devoid of vultures in all the three vulture counts conducted during 2010 and 2011 ( Fig. 2). GPS location details of vultures provided by the field staff is given in Appendix 1 and 2.
The Tarai eco-zone recorded highest number of vultures in all seasons and all of the six species (Egyptian Vulture, Himalayan Griffon, Red-headed Vulture, Indian Vulture, Slender-billed Vulture, and White-rumped Vulture) but the Gangetic and Semi-arid eco-zones had only Egyptian Vulture and the Bundelkhand-Vindhyan region had Indian Vulture (Figs. 3 & 4). However, the concentration of all the vultures except Egyptian Vulture was very high in protected wildlife areas (national park and sanctuaries) as compared to the neighbouring forests.

Habitat use
Forest area, scattered trees, rocky cliffs, monuments, open agriculture fields and riversides were being used by different species of vultures for nesting and  also seen resting on high tension line support frames and wireless towers, and wandering in agriculture fields. Indian Vultures were found using the ledges of rocky cliffs and the cornices of monuments. White-rumped Vultures were seen basking in the sun, some with necks drooping, along the mud island of a river (Gerua in Katerniaght FD). Another colony of this species was seen roosting around a pair of nests on Silk Cotton tree in the proximity of a water body (at the bank of same river) and at the boundary of a hamlet. However, a vulture bathing in a water body was not recorded on the vulture counting dates. All the trees holding nests (5 Silk Cotton, 3 Sissoo, 2 Teak and 1 Haldu) and being used as roosting (4 Silk Cotton, 2 Sissoo, 1 Teak) visited during the summer and winter counting by the author, were tall (15-20 m) and with leafed crowns. In one case a Himalayan Griffon was seen roosting on top of a dry Sissoo tree. These trees were mostly old and matured. The presence of a large flock of Egyptian Vulture was recorded in and around the campus of a bone-based fertilizer factory. The numbers of nests recorded during the summer and winter counts on the basis of direct evidence were 73 and 75, respectively (Fig. 5). The vultures were either sitting inside the nests or were seen resting very close to them. These nests were mainly located in the Tarai ecozone followed by the Bundelkhand-Vindhyan eco-zone. During the winter 2011 count 18 nests of White-rumped Vulture, seven nests of Red-headed Vulture, three nests of Slender-billed Vulture and five nests of Indian Vulture were seen in the Tarai eco-zone, while 37 nests of Indian vulture and six unidentified nests were seen in the Bundelkhand-Vindhyan eco-zone. One nest each of Egyptian Vulture was seen in the Gangetic and the semiarid eco-zone. One hundred twenty five additional nests were found empty but with faecal deposits and some vegetation material in the cliffs of the Kaimoor (Mahabir Swamy) Sanctuary (Bundelkhand-Vindhyan eco-zone). These nests were assumed to be of Indian Vultures since this species was recorded in large number (around 500 during summer count) in this locality.

DISCUSSION
The risk of extinction greatly depends on the frequency of catastrophe, survival rate and reduction in the population growth rate (Pavokovic & Susic 2005). The total population figure of the state kept decreasing in subsequent counts. Although data was too scanty for strong quantitative assessment (three temporal populations of vultures in the span of 16 months) still, the apparently negative growth of vulture population was corroborated with the respondents' observation that vulture population had decreased in the past one and a half decade. The decreasing population trend conformed to the previous reports (Prakash 1999;Gilbert et al. 2002;Prakash et al. 2003;Gilbert et al. 2006). But the rate of decrease in mixed population was slow (3.2%) as compared to a very high mortality rate (11-18 %) in the earlier report in select Gyps species  (Khan & Murn 2011). Kendall et al. (2014) suggested that prey mortality may be a more important driver of vulture habitat use than prey abundance. UP is a highly populated and agriculture dominated state, with poor natural resource reserve and a livestock population of 64 million (UPFS 2010). The high livestock availability went in favour of vulture food security due to possible availability of carcasses and carrion. However, the situation on the ground was different, as informed by the respondents, since most of the cattle were sold before they grew old. This could be correlated to the fact that UP has a sizable beef eating population and also a wellestablished leather industry (Kumar 2010). The dead animals thrown at the outskirts of the village, by default available food for vulture, had the probability of the presence of diclofenac in the carrion as illegal diclofenac use was very common in rural areas. This could cause trophic resource stress and may have a negative impact on vulture conservation in the state.
The Tarai and Bundelkhand-Vindhyan eco-zones were the major vulture population centers, possibly due to higher forest cover of which a large part is managed as wildlife conservation reserve as compared to the Gangetic and the semi-arid eco-zones. In terms of vegetation Bundelkhand-Vindhyan, Tarai, Gangetic and semi-arid eco-zones have 44, 35, 15, and 6% of total forest cover in the state, respectively, compared to the geographical area 17, 25, 51 and 8 % of the state (UPFS 2010). This suggested a decreasing density order of forests in Tarai, Bundelkhand-Vindhyan, Semi-arid and Gangetic eco-zones. The occurrence of vultures in high vegetation areas was supported by previous reports as vultures require a relict wooded area, mature trees and a foraging range (Fargallo et al. 1998 Forested districts provided both domestic as well as wild animals for food to the vultures. The Tarai and the Bundelkhand-Vindhyan eco-zones (4.3 and 2.1 animals km -2 , respectively) had additional availability of food in the form of wild animals as compared to the Gangetic and the semi-arid eco-zones (3.0 and 2.7 animals km -2 , respectively; UPFS 2010). Under the prevailing circumstances of scarcity of domestic animal carcasses due to their selling, availability of wild animals was an added advantage for vulture presence as the dead bodies of wild animals, which were diclofenac-free trophic resources, were available.
The Gangetic plain and the semi-arid eco-zones only had Egyptian Vultures. Food supply appears to be the limiting factor in these regions. The food supply available to any large scavenging animal came largely from the carcasses of ungulates and these were widely dispersed, transient and unpredictable in this location (Houston 2005). Domestic ungulates were available outside forests but a majority of the cattle were sold, resulting in non-availability of carcass as vulture feed, and whatever was left from the transaction had the potential danger of diclofenac infestation, possibly forcing the vultures to avoid feeding on them. Egyptian Vultures could be seen in non-forested areas (semi-arid and Gangetic eco-zones) as they chose to feed on small animals, debris or rubbish dump, human and ungulate faeces, and vegetable matter (Whistler 1949;Prakash & Nanjappa 1988;Negro et al. 2002) available in plenty, and lived in an open landscape in arid and rugged areas (Liberatori & Penteriani 2001;Donazar 2002b). Their presence in large numbers in the campus of the bone factory indicated that they could feed on bony remains of old dry carcasses collected for fertilizer making. A similar habit has been reported earlier in the case of Cape Vulture Gyps coprotheres (Vernon 2004).
Generally, lofty and sparsely branched trees in the forest area were used by large vultures for nesting and roosting. Such trees were helpful in providing safety from predators, a better view of surroundings and an easy take off (Yamac 2007). This also facilitated nocturnal perches with favourable microclimate by causing temperature inversion (Thompson et al. 1990). The use of large trees for nesting and roosting, including Silk cotton or Kapok or Semal, Sissoo, Teak, Haldu, Sacred Fig, Banyan (Kambale 2011) and Prosopis cineraria (Khatri 2013) were also reported to be used by the vultures in different areas. Taller trees were, however, dominant in number, 90% in the present case which is very similar to the 86% reported by Baral et al. (2005). The use of taller trees for nesting and roosting has been reported for White-rumped Vulture (Thakur & Narang 2012) and White-backed Vulture Gyps africanus (Chomba & M'Simuko 2013).
It was suggested that some vulture species had a tendency to choose dead trees for roosting (Ceballos & Donazar 1990) which did not conform to present findings. There is a report like the present one, where almost all the trees observed with vultures had leafed crowns (Yamac 2007). The selection of artificial yet dangerous structure like electricity pylons for roosting and nesting by some other vulture species had also been reported earlier (van Rooyen 2004;Anderson & Hohne 2007;Chhangani 2009;Phipps et al. 2013).
The neck drooping posture in vulture was earlier recorded by some workers Pain et al. 2003;Prakash et al. 2003) and described as an indicator of approaching death but contradicted later by Gilbert et al. (2007) stating that it is an unsuccessful predictor of mortality and has a probable role in thermoregulation. Until further reports sun basking, dozing off with a limping and hanging neck appearance in White-rumped Vulture could be taken as a normal activity of this species.

MANAGEMENT PRESCRIPTION AND CONCLUSION
The population of the vulture in UP was very low, especially the critically endangered ones (Indian Vulture, Red-headed Vulture, Slender-billed Vulture, Whiterumped Vulture). Vulture species in general are carrion feeders and old world vultures are slow breeders with low growth rates (Donazar & Ceballos 1989). Therefore, there is a need to take necessary steps to save them from all possible threats, primarily by ensuring safe and sufficient food, recovery from accidents and rehabilitation, and a protected environment.
Other than diclofenac-tainted food, the most serious threat to vulture species is the loss and alteration of habitat (Donazar et al. 2002a). Vultures are selective about tree species and individual trees for nesting and roosting as they use tall trees with sparse but strong branching. These trees in the forest must be located, marked and protected because loss of large trees in general would affect nesting negatively and in turn the population (Monadjem & Garcelon 2005;Chomba & M'Simuko 2013). Since vultures are sensitive to disturbance during the breeding season there should be an effort to maintain an anthropogenic disturbance free zone around such nested and roosted trees. A buffer zone of a minimum of 500m (Margalida et al. 2010) between source of disturbance and breeding colony should be used as shock absorber, since minimum human disturbance is critical to successful breeding of raptors (Bamford et al. 2009;Chomba & M'Simuko 2013).
However, the base line data generated in this study could be used for future monitoring and further detailed study. Better supported findings could define better management action in the direction of the conservation of this highly endangered group of species.