Conservation Application Do wildlife crimes against less charismatic species go unnoticed? A case study of Golden Jackal Canis aureus Linnaeus, 1758 poaching and trade in India

Wildlife crimes pertaining to lesser-known species do not usually garner adequate focus or interest by enforcement and conservation agencies. Additionally, illegal wildlife trade fuelled by religious beliefs in sorcery and superstition is an oft-neglected field of research. To draw attention to these two broad issues, we provide a baseline analysis of open-source reports on Golden Jackal Canis aureus poaching and trade in India. We highlight the pervasiveness of an active local and transnational ‘jackal horn’ trade, which is severely under-reported and insufficiently researched. News reports and government seizure data reveal that, between 2013 and 2019, 126 skins, eight tails, more than 370 ‘jackal horns’, 16 skulls and two live jackals have been seized. The demand for the illusionary ‘jackal horn’ appears to be driven by extensive online endorsement and unsubstantiated claims made by religious practitioners, targeted primarily at south Asian markets. This preliminary study is an urgent call for concerted efforts to monitor the illegal trafficking and trade of this common species, with a particular focus on the demand and supply chains.


INTRODUCTION
The marginalization of less charismatic species is evident in the lack of conservation funding and public discourse in preventing their illegal poaching and trade (Sigouin et al. 2017). Conservation efforts to combat poaching are generally focused on large, charismatic species or species that face immediate extinction threats. Illegal trade of relatively abundant species, whose populations are not considered to face imminent declines, however, may comprise a significant portion of wildlife seizure data (Scheffers et al. 2019). For example, digital monitoring of illegal wildlife trade in the United States revealed that non-threatened species, which included deer, elk, moose and bear were frequently confiscated, although these species were not typically the focus of organizations controlling illegal wildlife trade (Hansen et al. 2012). This presents a paradox. While antipoaching efforts focus inadequately on common species, unsustainable hunting or poaching could in fact accelerate the decline of less charismatic species and result in local extinctions (e.g., local extinction of the African Civet in several areas in Ghana driven by unsustainable bush meat hunting; Ryan & Attuquayefio 2000;Damania et al. 2005). Additionally, the pursuit of a common target species could lead to the 'opportunistic exploitation' of a higher value rare species. The basis of this suggestion is that targeting a widespread species, while also earning profits through opportunistic encounters with higher valued species, is more profitable than targeting higher valued species alone (Branch et al. 2013). Therefore, monitoring common or relatively widespread species in illegal wildlife trade networks fulfills the dual role of preventing an abundant species from spiralling into decline and reducing poaching pressure on rare species.
An oft-overlooked aspect of illegal wildlife trade is one that is rooted in local religious practices. Wildlife may be utilized as sacrificial offerings (e.g. In India, conservation bias towards charismatic species echoes amongst policy makers, with many holding the view that large, charismatic wildlife are the primary target species for poaching or illegal trade (Niraj et al. 2009). In contrast, illegal wildlife trade in the country constitutes a significant portion of lesser-known, less charismatic and common species that are traded in diverse markets as exotic pets, wild meat, traditional medicine, sorcery and superstitious practices, perfumes, souvenirs, ornaments and even for the manufacture of painting and shaving products, among other reasons (Sahajpal et al. 2009;Aiyadurai 2011;Mendiratta et al. 2017;Sharma et al. 2019). The demand for products used in superstitious or religious practices surpasses state and national boundaries, giving rise to widespread and diverse consumer groups. The evidence-base for this trade, unfortunately, is limited and ambiguous. This is typified by the local and international trade in monitor lizard Varanus spp. genital parts, driven by belief in sorcery, superstition and traditional medicine. The body part is sold in local markets and online platforms with the Hindi name 'hatha jodi', which is also the name for the root of Martynia annua, a rare medicinal plant. The masked biological origin, and shared nomenclature with a plant that is valued as traditional medicine, most likely facilitates the trade while evading detection by enforcement authorities (Bhattacharya & Koch 2018;Rajpoot et al. 2018;Sharma et al. 2019). Additionally, the use of e-commerce platforms for wildlife-derived products (compared to previous 'word-of-mouth' approaches; Ahmed 2010) presents a definitive shift by sorcery practitioners to reach a much wider clientele. Illegal, small-scale wildlife markets benefit from online legal markets by the legal protection provided by these companies, and as a means to expand business opportunities in a relatively risk-free cyber space (Lavorgna 2014).
Poaching of the Golden Jackal Canis aureus in India exemplifies two broad issues discussed above: (i) the marginalization of less-charismatic species in terms of conservation efforts, and (ii) illegal trade of common species for religious practices. The Golden Jackal is listed under the Least Concern category of the IUCN Red List because of its large global distribution and purported stable populations. In India, hunting and trade of jackals is a punishable offence; it is protected under Schedule II of the Wild Life Protection Act (1972)

SUBSISTENCE HUNTING, POACHING, AND TRADE
Our review of open-source reports showed that jackal meat is consumed by several communities in the north-eastern states, and parts of western, central and southern India (Borah & Prasad 2016). Jackal body parts such as head, skin, tail and teeth find use in traditional and cultural practices in southern India, and jackal organs are believed to have medicinal properties in central India.
Poaching and trade of skin, teeth, tail and hair have been documented in media reports from several Indian states (Figure 1). Our analysis of media reports revealed that 126 skins, eight tails, and two live jackals were seized by the Wildlife Crime Control Bureau of India (WCCB) between 2013 and 2019 (see Supplementary Material).
A more pervasive threat is likely from poaching of jackals for 'siyar singhi'-a talisman extracted from the jackal's skull-translating to 'jackal horn' in English. A jackal's skull does not have a true horn; the 'siyar singhi' is either a protrusion or deformity behind the jackal's sagittal crest, or in many cases, a tuft of hair from a jackal or any domestic animal (dog, pig, or goat), stuck together in the shape of a ball. Some images on the Internet also show the dewclaw of jackals/foxes/dogs marketed as 'jackal horn'. The sale of 'jackal horn' appears to be commonplace in Indian trade markets, as evidenced by advertisements on social media and popular online retail outlets. Regional names for 'jackal horn' include 'siyar singhi' or 'gidar singhi' in Hindi, Urdu, and Punjabi, and 'nari kombu' in Tamil, Kannada, and Telugu. Between 2013 and 2019, the WCCB seized more than 370 'jackal horns' and 16 skulls. These seizures usually happen during anti-trafficking operations targeted at 'hatha jodi' (dried copulatory organ of monitor lizard Varanus spp.) trade (Bhattacharya & Koch 2018; Sharma et al. 2019). The demand for 'jackal horns' appears to be driven by superstitious beliefs, strengthened by online propaganda, perpetuated by traders of ritualistic worship materials, astrologers, and sorcery or 'black magic' practitioners of Hindu, Muslim, and Sikh religious groups (see Supplementary Material).

ONLINE ENDORSEMENT AND TRADE OF 'JACKAL HORNS'
We found that verified accounts on YouTube endorse the purported magical powers of 'jackal horns', with Note: Jammu-Kashmir was a State during the study period; now split into Union Territories.

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several tutorials demonstrating how the product is stored or used. These parts are often sold in pairs, claiming to be a male and a female. Online advertisements and videos show the widespread presence of an internetbased market for jackal parts, with local, regional, and international stakeholders. The demand from sorcery practitioners of the southern Asian diaspora perhaps fuels the trade. Based on evidence from social media posts and e-commerce platforms, we believe that Pakistan may be a source-country (besides India) for the 'siyar singhi' trade (see Supplementary Material). We found that online retailers based in the UK, USA, Germany, and Singapore also list 'jackal horns' for sale on their websites. Some reports indicate that sellers procure the product from local hunters, while others suggest 'jackal horns' are part of a much wider international trade. These open markets raise serious concerns about the prevalence of organised crime networks transporting and distributing jackal products across international borders. There is some evidence that jackals may be poached by planting crude bombs or trapped in leg-hold traps. The jackal trade issue discussed here is, therefore, problematic, both, from the ecological and animal welfare perspectives.

KEY CHALLENGES AND RECOMMENDATIONS
Limited only to publicly accessible reports and social media articles, our exploratory research underscores the paucity of comprehensive data or academic analyses of seizures related to jackal parts. Absence of detailed information such as the quantity, modus operandi, transit modes, transit routes, and potential destinations, impedes our understanding of the scale of harvest and components of the demand-supply chain. The biases associated with English media news reports further add to the problem; levels of public interest and awareness may influence locations and accuracy in such reporting. Furthermore, those states in India that actively enforce poaching and wildlife trafficking laws may be overrepresented in the media. Understanding the extent of local and transnational trade in jackal parts and combating the trade will require groundbased investigations and collaborations between source and destination countries. This will largely depend on political will, or the lack of it.
As preliminary efforts in this direction, we strongly recommend that State Forest Departments confiscate jackal parts that may be encountered while targeting the larger illegal trade market for superstitious ritualistic products, which often include monitor lizards, musk pods (from Himalayan Musk Deer Moschus chrysogaster), pangolin scales, leopard parts, snake bones, owls, corals and other species (see Supplementary Material). Animal parts seized during such raids should be sent for laboratory-based genetic analysis to help ascertain species identity.
Protocols in the identification, screening and documentation of 'jackal horn' trade need to be developed for the Police, Forest officials and enforcement agencies that regulate wildlife trade. Given the trans-boundary nature of the trade, Customs officials deputed at international transit points need to be trained in identification of these products. E-commerce portals such as Amazon, Facebook, eBay, and possibly YouTube must incorporate a stricter screening of posts that involve illegal trade of wild animal parts through their websites. These measures would also go a long way in meeting the Convention of Biological Diversity post-2020 global commitments that stress on the importance of maintaining transparency in wildlife trade flows between countries (IUCN 2019).

Knowledge of Golden Jackal poaching and trade in
India is severely lacking due to its 'common' status, lack of public awareness and its prevalence in the lesserknown wildlife market driven by superstitious and religious practices. Through our exploratory analysis, we draw attention to the widespread poaching and trade of jackal body parts in India, largely driven by superstitious belief. We highlight the prevalence of the 'jackal horn'-a talisman extracted from the jackal's skull that is widely advertised on social media and e-commerce platforms. News reports and government seizure data reveal that the 'jackal horn' trade is possibly part of the larger wildlife trade for sorcery products that similarly targets monitor lizards, pangolins, leopards, musk deer, owls and several marine species. At present, critical knowledge gaps impede effective detection and prevention of jackal poaching crimes. Future investigations will need to focus on periodic monitoring of the species to further our understanding of trends in wildlife trade and trafficking of jackals in India and beyond.

Supplementary Material (Appendix 1-4)
Information on poaching and trade news reports and seizure reports. Requests for archived news articles, images and videos may be directed to the corresponding author.
Author details: Malaika Mathew Chawla is currently studying the determinants of the range limits of the invasive red fox in Australia. She is also interested in human dimensions of wildlife and has worked on human-jackal co-adaptation in rural landscapes of Goa, India. She is currently with James Cook University, Australia. Arjun Srivathsa is interested in large carnivores, with a focus on dholes. His research work deals with population ecology, human-wildlife interactions and conservation biology of wild canids in India. He is currently with the University of Florida, USA and Wildlife Conservation Society-India. Priya Singh is an independent researcher working on carnivore communities in northeastern India. Iravatee Majgaonkar is a PhD student at the Ashoka Trust for Research in Ecology and the Environment. She has previously worked on carnivore distribution and human-carnivore relations in the Deccan landscape. Sushma Sharma has been involved in various projects aimed at understanding population ecology of carnivores. She is currently a project assistant with Wildlife Conservation Society-India, and aspires to continue working on carnivore ecology. Girish Punjabi is a wildlife biologist, and is broadly interested in understanding terrestrial mammal distributions, population ecology, and the role of science in conservation policy. He now works with Wildlife Conservation Trust.
Aditya Banerjee is an aspiring conservationist, currently working with Conservation Initiatives. He is interested in studying ecology of wild canids and small carnivores in India.
Author contributions: MMC and AS conceived the idea, MMC and AB compiled the data, all authors critically evaluated and validated the data and finally MMC, AS, and SS processed the data for publication. All authors contributed towards writing the manuscript.