Diversity and distribution of figs in Tripura with four new additional records

The genus Ficus L., commonly known as Fig plays an important role in the forest ecosystem, being a keystone species. Taxonomic revision, habitat assessment, and floristic study of the genus Ficus of northeastern region are scanty and still lacking. As the genus is rich in diversity, this region possesses tremendous scope for utilisation of its members, as many species belonging to this genus carry good properties for diverse uses for the benefit of mankind. Therefore, the present study has been undertaken for identification of the collected taxa, diversity assessment of the wild as well as planted species, distribution throughout the state and preparation of a comprehensive checklist along with measures of diverse functions and ecological role of the genus Ficus in Tripura, North-East India. Field survey was conducted between April 2017–August 2018 throughout Tripura and all the locations were marked with GPS which is given in the present distribution map of Ficus in Tripura. This study is based on extensive field survey and specimen collection. Key taxonomic description, both accepted and vernacular names, phenology, and diverse habitat function of all species have been provided. Based on the available literatures, distribution information of the present records were calculated. Evaluation of diverse ecological role were scored based on the published literature and field observations. In the present study, 23 taxa of Ficus have been reported from the study area including four new distribution records. Most of the Ficus species recorded in this study were from moist mixed deciduous and secondary forests. Out of 23 species of Ficus recorded in the present study, seven (7) species belong to evergreen small tree to shrub (F. benghalensis, F. drupacea, F. elastica, F. microcarpa, F. racemosa, F. sarmentosa and F. semicordata); three (3) species recorded are large deciduous tree (F. racemosa, F. religiosa and F. rumphii). Fleshy fruited trees are the most preferable option for survival of frugivores over diverse habitats and thus, plays major role for entire ecosystem restoration. The present work will be useful to understand the critical interactions between plants and frugivore at different trophic levels. Further, Ficus groups tend to have multiple ecological roles, and as a result there exists huge scope to understand the mechanisms of plant functional traits for conservation of threatened frugivore diversity.


INTRODUCTION
The genus Ficus L. (commonly known as Fig; Moraceae) or fig trees are being considered as keystone species and ecologically important because they sustain populations of the many seed-dispersing animals that feed on their fruits throughout the year (Chaudhary et al. 2012;Krishnan & Borges 2018). Ficus is considered the most conspicuous and elusive genus due to its minute flowers present inside the closed fleshy receptacle (scyconium). The genus comprises about 750 species throughout the world (Corner 1965;Berg 1989;Berg & Corner 2005;Ronsted et al. 2008;Pederneiras et al. 2015). Furthermore, Adebayo et al. (2009) reported occurrence of 800 species in tropical and subtropical regions of the world and about 115 species in India (Chaudhary et al. 2012). Ficus is one of the largest genera of angiosperms comprising terrestrial trees (deciduous and evergreen trees), shrubs, hemi-epiphytes, climbers, and creepers occurring in the tropics and subtropics of the world (Frodin 2004;Berg & Corner 2005).
The first systematic account of the Indian Ficus L. is available in King (1887King ( -88,1888; therein he recorded 113 species and 47 infraspecific taxa from whole of the then British India out of which only 75 species and 16 infraspecific taxa were reported from presentday political boundary of the country. There are many published works on the genus by various authors who have contributed in the field of identification, classification, and nomenclature (Corner 1961(Corner , 1965(Corner , 1969(Corner , 1975(Corner , 1981Berg 1986Berg , 2003Berg , 2006Berg , 2007Berg , 2010Berg , 2012Chantarasuwan & Kumton 2005;Whitfeld & Weiblen 2010;Kumar et al. 2011;Murugan et al. 2013;Dhungana et al. 2015) and new records from different regions of the world have contributed to the knowledge on taxonomy and distribution of this genus.
Ficus is readily distinguished by the highly characteristic fruits and has often been recognized by the milky juice, the prominent stipule that leaves a scar on falling and the minute unisexual flowers often arranged on variously shaped receptacles (Hutchinson & Dalziel 1958). Ficus includes a large number of indoor ornamental plants and garden and roadside trees such as F. benjamina, F. elastica, F. pumila, F. religiosa, and F. microcarpa. The genus has followed several curious lines of evolution (Weiblen 2001). The main concentration of the species lies in Asian-Australian region with about 500 species which is about 66% of the world species. Ficus is also considered one of the most diversified genera with regard to its habits and life forms (free standing tree, epiphytes, semi-epiphytes in the crevices, Rheophytes, and Lithophytes). Some of the species of Ficus are used as food (e.g., F. auriculata, F. semicordata), fodder (e.g., F. hispida), and as medicine (e.g., F. elastica, F. religiosa). Moreover, F. religiosa and F. benghalensis are considered sacred to Buddhists and Hindus (Wilson & Wilson 2013).
It was reported that globally biodiversity is changing at an unprecedented rate as a complex response to several human-induced changes (Vitousek et al. 1997) and forest restoration is an increasingly important tool to offset and indeed reverse global deforestation rates (Cottee-Jones et al. 2016). One low cost strategy to accelerate forest recovery is conserving scattered native trees that persist across disturbed landscapes. Ficus trees, which are considered to be critically important components of tropical ecosystems, may be particularly attractive to seed dispersers in that they produce large and nutritionally rewarding fruit crops (Cottee-Jones et al. 2016) and in case of forest restoration studies seed dispersal has been frequently referred (Cole et al. 2010;Holl et al. 2013;Zahawi et al. 2013).
Fleshy-fruited trees are believed to be the most effective species at attracting frugivores over disturbed habitats and thus prove to be more effective restoration nuclei than other species (Slocum 2001). Ficus in particular is believed to be a very important genus of fleshy-fruited tree for a wide range of frugivores (Leighton & Leighton 1983;Terborgh 1986;Janzen 1988;Lambert & Marshall 1991;Shanahan et al. 2001;Kinnaird et al. 2005). Within intact forests, the unusual asynchronous fruiting cycle, large crop sizes, and pan-tropical availability of Ficus means that over 1,200 tropical birds and mammals have been recorded consuming Ficus fruit (Shanahan et al. 2001).
Taxonomic revision, habitat assessment, and floristic study of the genus Ficus of northeastern region are scanty and still lacking; however several studies were conducted from the region, viz.: Cottee-Jones et al. (2016) evaluated importance of Ficus trees for tropical forest restoration; medicinal uses Ficus by Sharma & Pegu (2011); figs as wild vegetables by Dutta (2012); a rare and lesser known species of India by Buragohain et al. (2012); and fig morphological characters and distribution by Dhungana et al. (2015). In Tripura such type of study and analysis was not done until date except for a few new reports (Majumdar et al. 2012a); however, efforts were made to quantify some Ficus tree species along with other trees in the forests of Tripura (Majumdar et al. 2012b;Majumdar & Datta 2014). As the genus is rich in diversity, this region possesses tremendous scope for utilisation of its members, as many species belonging to this genus carry good properties for

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use for the benefit of mankind. Therefore, the present study has been undertaken for identification of the collected taxa, diversity assessment of the wild as well as planted species, distribution throughout the state and preparation of a comprehensive checklist along with measures of diverse functions and ecological role of the genus Ficus in Tripura, North-East India.

Study area
Tripura is a state of northeastern India. It is the third-smallest state in the country bordered by Bangladesh to the north, south, west, and the Indian states of Assam and Mizoram to the east. There are five hill ranges in Tripura, these are, Baramura, Atharamura, Longtarai, Sakhan, and Jampui run north to south, parallel to each other. Forests cover more than half of the area, in which bamboo and cane tracts are common. Like most of the Indian subcontinent, Tripura lies within the Indo-Malaya eco-zone. According to the bio-geographic classification of India, the state is in the North-East bio-geographic zone (Champion & Seth 1968). The state has a geographical area of 10,491km 2 . As per the report of the Forest Survey of India (FSI 2015) total forest and tree cover in the state is 8,044km 2 , i.e., 76.71 % of the total state's geographical area.

Field survey, data collection and species identification
Field survey was conducted between April 2017-August 2018 throughout Tripura and all the locations were marked with GPS which is given in the present distribution map of Ficus in Tripura (Fig. 1). Survey was also conducted in each locality including discrete forest area. The occurrences of the Ficus plants were recorded and specimens were collected from the field for taxonomical study as well as made into standard mounted herbarium sheets following the standard procedure (Jain & Rao 1977). As far as possible, specimens were collected with reproductive parts for the morphological studies and preparation of herbarium sheets. Reproductive parts were preserved in FAA solution for further microscopic studies in the laboratory.
The taxonomic identification of tree species and their geographic distribution ranges were based on the information of Hooker (1890), Kanjilal et al. (1940), Haridasan & Rao (1987), and Deb (1981). The identity of collected specimens was also determined by study of detailed taxonomic descriptions in different e-floras. The voucher specimens were deposited in the herbarium of the Department of Botany, Tripura University.

Species distribution
Based on the available literatures, distribution information of the present records were calculated on a scale of 1-6 (smaller to larger) to derived geographic distribution ranges score from numerical scale by slightly modified methods of Spitzer et al. (1993), i.e., (1) Eastern Himalaya, Yunnan and northern Indochina, (2) Bangladesh, northeastern India and northern Myanmar, (3) Indo-Burma (India including Andaman Island, Burma, Thailand and up to Vietnam), (4) Indo-Australian (India including Western Ghats, Sri Lanka, Indonesia and up to Australasian tropics), (5) Paleotropic (up to Baluchistan), (6) Cosmopolitan (Majumdar et al. 2012a).

Data analysis
Local occurrence and distribution in different forest habitat as well as non-forest land was typically recorded based on Frequency classes (Raunkiaer 1934), indicates the number of sampling units in which a given species occurs (Mishra 1968). Frequency of Ficus species in different locations of refers to the degree of dispersion of individual species in an area and is usually expressed in terms of percentage of occurrence.
Frequency and relative frequency of species in the study area are measured by using the formulae of Curtis & McIntosh (1950), which are given below. Frequency = (No. of occurrences of a species × 100) / Total No. of site samples taken Relative Frequency = (No. of occurrence of particular species × 100) / Total no. of occurrences of all the species The values of relative frequency are calibrated on a 10-point scale to assign a status to the species in each region, however in this study we have not laid any quadrat and in this concern availability of a species was ranked based on their occurrence throughout the state Tripura. Four distinct groups are derived from this 10-point scale and each group in each region is designated as follows: 7-10 Very Frequent, 5-7 Frequent, 3-5 Less Frequent, <3 Rare.
Uses: Wood moderately hard, used as timber for miscellaneous purposes (Deb 1981). F. benghalensis is considered greatly sacred to Hindu as well as to the Buddhists and worshiped in diverse ways at a variety of occasions. F. benghalensis is also reported to cure many diseases ethnomedicinally such as leucorrhoea, antiemetic, cutsand wounds, joint pains.
Ecology: Naturally scattered in the state and planted on road side as an avenue tree. The aerial root is styptic and aphrodisiac. Tips of the hanging roots are given for obstinate vomiting.  (Rijal 1994;Thapa et al. 1997;Panthi & Chaudhary 2002).

Ficus benjamina
Ecology: Sacred tree and mostly occurrs on the roadside. Uses: Yields an inferior rubber (Deb, 1981), used as an ornamental tree.
Ecology: Found in moist deciduous forest. Global distribution: Bhutan, Indonesia, Myanmar, Nepal, native to tropical Asia, India, and Malaysia and has been introduced in several countries. Distribution in India: Assam, Meghalaya, Sikkim, Tripura, Karnataka, eastern Himalayas, and also widely cultivated throughout the country.

Distribution in Tripura: Planted at MBB College garden, growth is luxuriant
Uses: Yields the India rubber of commerce. Bark is astringent and used as styptics for wounds. Latex used for parasitic worms. Decoction of aerial rootlets used for wounds, cuts and scores.

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inflorescence is used as a vegetable. Fruits are prescribed for diabetic patients. Ethno-medicinally, fruits, leaves and sticky latex are used for the treatment of lever ailments, urinary diseases and inflammatory conditions. In diabetes rootexudates is taken even as for curing jaundice, curry prepared from leaf is taken (Borah et al. 2012). Young shoots, leaves and green fruits are eaten as vegetable and even the ripe receptacle is also eaten which is considered as food for liver (Dutta 2012). Fruits are also eaten cooked or pickled, leaves are used for making dishes and twigs are lopped for fodder (Chhetri 2010). Ecology: Mostly found in deciduous forest.   Taxa  Uses: Its figs are consumed by several frugivorous vertebrate species, primarily birds, but also bats, rodents, other small mammals, and ants, which act as secondary dispersal agents (Kaufmann et al. 1991;Shanahan et al. 2001).

Journal of Threatened
Ecology: Mostly grown in roadside and designated as sacred tree, however it was also found in moist deciduous mixed forest with very low species density.  Uses: Bark contains Secondary metabolites and they are responsible for therapeutic effects (Devi et al. 2013).
Ecology: Canopy trees in evergreen forests. Remarks: This taxon was recorded as new distribution of extensions in Tripura, Northeast India; based on specimens collected from the field. The detailed description of the species with photographs and collection number are provided here to authenticate the record. Uses: Used for the production of jams and jellies. The fruits and the leaves are considered to be galactagogue and tonic. They are used in cases of impotence, lumbago, rheumatism, anaemia, haematuria, chronic dysentery and haemorrhoids. The latex is reported to have anthelmintic properties.

Ficus obscura
Ecology: Cultivated outdoors, this plant is a popular cover for stone walls or rock outcroppings. Grow as a houseplant or garden annual.
Remarks: This taxon was also recorded as new addition to the flora of Tripura. In Tripura it is known as an ornamental plant and is used widely for covering walls, somewhere introduced, however edible fruits are not consumed by local people. The detailed description of the species with photographs and collection number are provided here to authenticate the record. A large deciduous tree; young parts pubescent, bark greyish brown. Leaves 10-17.5 x 3.8-8 cm, ovateelliptic, ovate-oblong or oblong-lanceolate, entire, bluntly acuminate, membranous, glabrous, with minute dots on the lower surface; lateral nerves 4-10 on each side; base 3 nerved; petiole 1.4-2.4 cm long; stipules   (Chaudhary et al. 1999), and the bark is used for tanning. Latex is aphrodisiac and vulnerary, useful in inflammations, piles, diarrhea and in combination with sesamum oil in cancer. The mature fruits are astringent, stomachic and carminative. They are eaten by local communities. A decoction of the bark is used as a wash for wounds. Fruits are edible when ripe. Ethno-medicinally, boiled fruits are given in diabetes (Buragohain 2011 Uses: This is considered as a highly sacred tree in Hindu & Buddha religions since ancient time and worshiped in different ways at various occasions. The juice of bark is used for the treatment of ulcer, liver, spleen and skin diseases. The wood is moderately hard and durable so used in packing materials; the leaves are used as a fodder and it is planted as an avenue or road side tree. Uses: Used as fodder tree (Manandhar 2002). Foot and mouth disease of cattle is treated by feeding F. rumphii (Manandhar 1992(Manandhar , 2002.

Ecology:
Mostly grows as an epiphytic while young. Ecology: This taxon naturally spread their branches along the ground, but readily takes advantage of any shrub or tree in their path over which they can ascend. Evergreen species and traced in several semi evergreen forest patches. Uses: The figs are sweet and eaten by locals as fruit. The juice from the roots is given in bladder complaints and visceral obstructions (Kirtikar & Basu 2001). The leaves are use as fodder for cattle.

DISCUSSIONS
Most recently, 115 taxa of Ficus have been recorded from India out of which 89 are species and remaining 26 taxa fall under different infra-specific categories (six subspecies and 20 varieties), with maximum diversity in the north-east (61 spp.) and peninsular regions and Andman & Nicobar Islands with ca. 35 species each (Chaudhary et al. 2012). Kanjilal et al. (1940) reported 42 species of Ficus from undivided Assam in "Flora of Assam". In Meghalaya alone about 43 species of Ficus are found and considered as the hotspot region for the genus in India (Chaudhary et al. 2012).
In the present study, 23 taxa of Ficus have been reported from the study area including four new distribution records (Table 1). The increase in the number of species has been observed in the present study when compared to the earlier report of 23 taxa including one variety in the "Flora of Tripura State" from the same geographical extent (Deb 1981), which was based on survey of literature, author's own collection and consultation of herbaria, however, while working on the morpho-taxonomy of figs in Tripura, we could collect only 19 species out of 23 species reported by Deb (1981).
Out of 23 species of Ficus recorded in the present study, seven species belong to evergreen small tree to shrub (F. benghalensis, F. drupacea, F. elastica, F. microcarpa, F. racemosa, F. sarmentosa and F. semicordata); three (3) species recorded are large deciduous tree (F. racemosa, F. religiosa and F. rumphii). Among all species F. hispida and F. racemosa show a wide range of distribution in all the eight districts of the study area and variations in its habit which range from small shrub to mediumsized tree, however, F. hispida has been found more commonly especially in lowland and moist areas in mixed deciduous forest. The most common is the F. hispida which is present throughout except inside the deep forest. Apart from forest areas, F. benghalensis and F. religiosa are commonly visible on walls, temples and old buildings. F. benjamina, F. religiosa, F. curtipes, F. virens are epiphytic when young and free standing later. The Ficus species recorded occurs in mixed deciduous forest, moist deciduous forest, tropical semi-evergreen forest, and secondary forest.

Species distribution and conservation status
The information on geographic extensions of Ficus species is important from taxonomical and phytogeographical point of view and will also contribute towards the conservation of those restricted species. Although, it is difficult to quantify the total number of additional species that still exist in different forests of Tripura without comprehensive reassessments of the flora. Furthermore, present effort has been focussed on geographical distribution of collected species (Fig.2) with their regional distribution. Tripura possesses special significance in the biogeography of the Northeastern region due to its unique location and habitat heterogeneity. This region is part of Indo-Burma hotspot which is one of the 35 biodiversity hotspots in the world (Myers et al. 2000). The undulating topography, high rainfall and varied altitudes are main factors that have contributed to its rich hilly ecosystem and habitat diversity (Majumdar et al. 2012b). Many Ficus species are fast declining in the wild due to habitat changes, forest fragmentation, road construction and clearance of virgin forests for shifting cultivation, plantation and due to other developmental activities. Out of the present checklist, F. drupacea was assigned as Least Concern (ver. 3.1) in the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species (https://www.iucnredlist.org). Besides Ficus  Distribution of species in different habitats reveals that forests ecosystems are the main habitat of recorded species broadly distributed in moist deciduous forest, riparian cover and semi-evergreen forest. In the recent exploration of Ficus species in Tripura, we did not find any occurrence of four species which may be due to the current rate of deforestation and habitat loss some of these species may have altered distribution and may no longer exist in a particular area (Krupnick & Kress 2003). The uneven distribution of these species and the absence of these species in many parts of the state can be attributed to various factors.

Review on potential ecological role by Ficus
Ficus is the most important plant genus for tropical frugivores. Ficus forms a uniquely important group within the subset of plants with bird-eaten fruit because of their numerical abundance, intra-crown synchrony of fruit ripening, relatively short intervals between fruiting, large crop sizes and intrapopulation fruiting asynchrony. These characteristics combined with their availability at times when other fruits are scarce, makes Ficus a most important keystone plant resource (Lambert & Marshall 1991). Worldwide, a large number of animals are known to feed on the syconia, including pigeons, parrots, hornbills, toucans, bats, monkeys, and squirrels (Shanahan et al. 2001). According to Shanahan et al. (2001) 1,274 bird and mammal species in 523 genera and 92 families are known to eat figs. Figs are known to be eaten by 54 species but feature especially heavily in the diet of Asian hornbills. Brockelman (1982) noted that hornbills were the only birds capable of eating Ficus drupacea figs whole. Ficus virens ranks as one of the top 10 Ficus species that attract the most number of frugivorous species (Shanahan et al. 2001) and further can lead to improve frugivore biodiversity (Lee et al. 2013). Figs are among the most important food of specialized frugivores in Africa, southeastern Asia and Australia (Snow 1981). Khan & Ahsan (2015) reported that Ficus benghalensis was the top most preferred food plant. This plant species supported the diet of 13 (44.8%) species of birds. The birds have been shown to make long-duration feeding visits to fruiting trees and defecate fig seeds intact (Compton et al. 1996). The pigeon family (Columbidae) has a worldwide distribution and, after the parrots, has more fig-eaters than any other frugivore family which comprises 125 species in 25 genera (Shanahan et al. 2001). Invertebrates, including ants, dung beetles, snails and hermit crabs are known to consume fig fruits or seeds, thereby having impacts on Ficus seed dispersal. About 750 species of Ficus and the pollinating wasps resulted significant ecological interactions to complete their life cycle (Wiebes 1979;Grison-Pige et al. 2002;Harrison 2003;Castro et al. 2015). The figs (syconia) are pollinated entirely by specific wasps from the family Agaonidae  (Cook & Segar 2010). Such mutualism is exploited by a number of other parasitic non-pollinating wasps (Wiebes & Compton 1990) and by numerous species of ants, Homoptera, Coleoptera, Lepidoptera and Diptera (Bain et al. 2012).
Major uses of Ficus species found in Tripura were scored based on their earlier report and species were prioritized for their ecosystem services and medicinal uses (Fig. 3). Several species of Ficus, viz., F. microcarpa, F. religiosa, F.auriculata, F. benjamina, F. racemosa, F. bengalensis have been used in daily diet for nutrition as well as for medicinal usage and medicinal plants in the treatment of different diseases (Khan et al. 2011). Several species are indigenously used as food, fodder, fuel wood, vegetable, medicine, etc. They provide good fodder and various ecological services. They provide nectar, refuge habitat for several bird species and a wide variety of insects, and host orchids and mistletoes (Kunwar & Bussman 2006). F. benghalensis, F. benjamina, and F. religiosa have been reported as common host plants for orchids (Subedi & Paudyal 2001). Ficus is also important species in tropical forest restoration (Cottee-Jones et al. 2016). Higher species richness in Moraceae was recorded for all community types due to local availability of Artocarpus chama, A. lacucha and several other Ficus spp; their local adaptability and strong dispersal capability facilitated by several frugivorous birds and animals (Majumdar et al. 2012b). Due to high FIV (Family Important Value) of Moraceae particularly in secondary Teak forest may shift the secondary Teak population by native species richness of Moraceae. In such cases, species of Moraceae may contribute maximum for both IVI (Importance Value Index), FIV and ultimately to be the top predominant family over the existing species of other families especially in case of Teak dominated community. Such competitions among the families may alter the present forest dynamics and simultaneously may increase with changing of disturbance intensity; which partially may be boosted by several seed dispersal agents during secondary forest formations (Majumdar et al. 2012b). Because, species belonging to Moraceae have the advantages of attractive colored figs, sweet taste, high seed production and stock, small achene, universally eaten by frugivore and high germination ability even on unsuitable habitat viz., tree hole, dead wood, stone and barren land. Especially Capped Langur Trachypithecus pileatus, (Red List status -Vulnerable A2cd+3cd ver 3.1) (Das et al. 2008) was observed feeding on tender leaves of Aartocarpus chama, A. lacucha, Bombax ceiba, Garuga pinnata, Ficus glumerata, and Albizia lucida during field study in Shorea dominated community. Ficus trees scored low in terms of economic value, and the main reason for them remaining in the landscape was because of religious attributes endowed upon them. Trees that had shrines were significantly larger than those that did not. Ficus have been described as keystone species (Bleher et al. 2003;Eshiamwata et al. 2006) and provide connectivity for both tree and animal populations over a landscape scale (Manning et al. 2006). Further, figs often survive in human-dominated landscapes because of their cultural significance. F. benghalensis, F. religiosa have considerable religious associations in Hinduism and Buddhism and are also used as sites of worship (Barua 2009) and these cultural factors contribute to the safeguarding mature trees. They may be considered sacred groves at very local scales, and are working examples of how cultural practices might influence the existence of biodiversity outside protected areas.
With agricultural intensification, however, the number of mature Ficus trees declined and people cut down trees when they interfered with their daily activities. Extensive conversion of forests for cash crop plantation in this region has resulted in the emergence of landscape tracts that are a heterogeneous mixture of agriculture, human-settlement and forest fragments. Increased structural complexity and habitat for animals at local scales, and connectivity for both tree and animal populations over a landscape scale may result in ecosystem stability. It has been suggested that the establishment of Ficus is a critical phase in the reassembly of forests. Thus, they are an important resource for maintaining biodiversity outside protected areas, and their loss may result in undesirable ecological regime shifts. This account of Ficus diversity and distribution in the forest ecosystem may provide knowledge to the researchers about wildlife occurrence and their resource utilization in these subtropical regions.

CONCLUSION
The present study highlighted the taxonomy and diversity of the genus Ficus L. in Tripura, northeastern India, based on extensive field survey and exploration. The increase in the number of species has been observed in the present study when compared to the earlier report of 23 taxa including one variety in the "Flora of Tripura State" from the same geographical extent. As the genus is rich in diversity, this region possesses tremendous scope of exploitation of its members, as many species belonging to this genus have carried good properties beneficial to mankind as well as sustaining wildlife. Their importance for sustaining wildlife and the stability of interactions with several biological groups is an issue of considerable concern for conservation. Figs are tropical keystone resource and paramount to sustain wildlife and the stability of interactions with several biological groups is an issue of considerable concern for conservation.

Fig diversity and distribution in Tripura
Debbarma et al.