Short Communications First photographic evidence of Snow Leopard Panthera uncia (Mammalia: Carnivora: Felidae) outside current protected areas network in Nepal Himalaya

The Snow Leopard Panthera uncia is a rare top predator of high-altitude ecosystems and insufficiently surveyed outside of protected areas in Nepal. We conducted a rapid camera-trapping survey to assess the presence of Snow Leopard in the Limi valley of Humla District. Three individuals were recorded in two camera locations offering the first photographic evidence of this elusive cat outside the protected area network of Nepal. In addition to Snow Leopard, the Blue Sheep Pseudois nayaur, Beech Marten Martes foina, Pika Ochotona spp. and different species of birds were also detected by camera-traps. More extensive surveys and monitoring are needed for reliably estimating the population size of Snow Leopard in the area. The most urgent needs are community-based conservation activities aimed at mitigating immediate threats of poaching, retaliatory killing, and rapid prey depletion to ensure the survival of this top predator in the Himalaya.


Short Communications First photographic evidence of Snow Leopard Panthera uncia (Mammalia: Carnivora: Felidae) outside current protected areas network in Nepal Himalaya
The Snow Leopard Panthera uncia is distributed throughout northern Nepal along the boundary with China over an area of 22,625.34km 2 (Aryal et al. 2016). Snow Leopards research and conservation activities have been focused mostly on protected areas (PA) of Nepal (Jackson & Alhborn 1989;Oli 1991;Kyes & Chalise 2005;Khatiwada et al. 2007;Ale 2007;Ale et al. 2007;Devkota 2010;Karmacharya et al. 2011;Wegge et al. 2012;Aryal et al. 2014Aryal et al. , 2016. To date, research institutions, conservationists and students have given very low priority to surveys and monitoring of Snow Leopard outside Nepal's PAs, in spite of the existence of suitable habitat. A few Snow Leopard studies based on sign surveys were conducted outside PAs in Humla District (R. Jackson in litt. 2003; Khatiwada & Ghimirey 2009;FoN 2014) and Bhajang District (FoN 2014). Of the total potential habitats preferred by Snow Leopards in Nepal, 65% were located outside PAs (Jackson & Ahlborn 1990). More recent species distribution modeling, however, shows that only 34% of the total Snow Leopard habitat in Nepal lies outside the PA network, comprising a significant portion of potential unprotected habitats located in western Nepal, including Humla, Bajhang, and Bajura (Aryal et al. 2016).
The paucity of surveys and the resulting lack of reliable data for unprotected lands presumably increases leopard vulnerability to local extinction from poaching and retaliatory killing (R. Jackson pers. comm. 2017), and lack of effective government actions against poaching and wildlife trade aggravates the situation. Therefore, urgent collection of baseline data on Snow Leopard presence, distribution and status outside of PAs is warranted. To date, information on distribution and status of Snow Leopard is mostly based on anecdotal evidence and few sign surveys (Jackson & Hunter 1995). Due to challenging habitat structure, site accessibility and the cryptic nature of this felid species, direct sighting such as detection is virtually impossible (Jackson et al. 2006;Ale & Brown 2009). Camera trapping is a preferred method for detecting such rare and elusive species. In addition, sign surveys and local residents' interviews generally lack scientific rigor for reliable status assessment (Jackson et al. 2006). Considering these facts, we conducted the first ever camera-trapping survey of Snow Leopards in the Limi valley of Humla District of Nepal. The findings of this study will make an important baseline for future monitoring and help government and conservation partners in conservation planning.

Materials and Methods Study Area
Limi Valley is located in the trans-Himalayan steppe environment in Humla District of Nepal ( Fig. 1), covering an area of ca. 1200km 2 and including three villages (Halji, Jang, and Til) with 181 households and a total population of 904 humans. Historically, Limi residents depended on traditional barter economies and semi-nomadic animal husbandry. Now, trans-boundary grazing restrictions imposed by China compel community members to reduce livestock holdings and search for new economic options. Carving of Phuru, a wooden bowl made from maple knots, is an old and highly demanded economic activity for the people living in the upper part of Humla including the Limi Valley (R.P. Lama pers. obs. 2007-2015). Trade and   (Werhahn et al. 2017).

Site selection and camera trapping
We conducted a camera-trapping survey in the Limi Valley during July and August, 2015 to conduct a rapid assessment of Snow Leopard status. We divided the total study area into 5x5 km 2 grid cells considering 24km 2 (11-37 km 2 ) as the minimum home range of the Snow Leopard in western Nepal (Jackson 1996) and placed one or two cameras in each grid. Due to time limitations we could not cover an entire study area and placed camera-traps only in the least disturbed locations where we frequently observed Snow Leopard signs. We set up 17 Bushnell Trophy HD cameras in 17 locations (Fig. 1) within 10 grids following preferred habitat features like ridgelines, travel corridors and marking sites (Jackson et al. 2006). A minimum distance between camera-traps was kept at 2.5km, and they were placed at elevations from 3,092-4,608 m. Since the purpose of this preliminary survey was to assess the presence of Snow Leopard, we did not account for spatial autocorrelation of camera-trap sites. One camera-trap was lost thus only data from the remaining 16 camera-traps were used in the analysis.

Data management and analysis
We managed camera-trap images using the program described by Sanderson & Harris (2013). We defined capture events as independent images of a species at a location captured at least 60 minutes apart. We computed the relative abundance index (RAI) for all the mammals, birds and human recorded during the surveys. RAI was expressed as the number of independent images per 100 trap-nights (Sanderson & Harris 2013;Jenks et al. 2011).

Relative Abundance Index (RAI)
A total survey effort of 195 trap-nights recorded 39,839 images from 16 camera traps. We sorted out and analyzed images of mammals, birds and human (n = 1,110) and discarded the ghosts, i.e., false images and also the unknown images (n = 38,729). The survey recorded 95 independent images of four species of mammals: Snow Leopard (n = 6 images), Blue Sheep (n = 6 images), Beech Marten (n = 14 images), and Pikas (n = 69 images). In addition to mammals, images of different species birds (n = 711 images) and human (n = 99 images) were also recorded. The birds had the highest RAI of 45.00 captures/100 trap-nights followed by Pika (30.45), human (13.64), Beech Marten (5.45), Snow Leopard (2.73), and Blue Sheep (2.73) ( Table 1).

Photographic evidence of Snow Leopard
Snow Leopard was captured in two different locations (Til Gomba and Chhongerche) and the time to first detection was 16 days. We used pelage patterns (Jackson et al. 2006;Ale et al. 2014) to identify different individuals from camera-trap pictures. The dorsal side of the tail, forelegs, right hind legs and right flanks were particularly informative. We recorded total of three individuals, including two adults and one sub-adult (Image 1). In Til Gomba, individual 1 was recorded on 28 July 2015 from 00:06:05 h to 00:36:04 h (1a in Image 1) and individual 2 was captured on 30 July 2015 from 23:16:40-23:22:42 hr (2a in Image 1). The adjoining location Chhongerche also produced two events. Individual 3 was captured on 28 July 2015 from 17:14:36-17:14:37 hr (3b in Image 1) and individual 2 was captured on 31 July 2015 from 03:37:45-03:38:45 hr (2b in Image 1). In Til Gomba, individuals 1 and 2 were captured while scraping on the surface. In Chhongerche, individual 3 was captured while scentmarking a rock (3b in Image 1). Both these locations are dominated by broken terrain and cliffs providing good habitats for Snow Leopard and the middle elevations contain open areas with good grazing grounds for Blue Sheep.

Discussion
This is the first camera-trapping survey in the Limi Valley that successfully recorded Snow Leopards during a short survey period in two locations. An opportunistic survey carried out in early 2000 suggested the presence of Snow Leopards in the Limi Valley (R. Jackson pers. comm. 2017). A study conducted in 2007 in the adjoining area which included some parts of the Limi Valley also showed a good abundance of Snow Leopard signs (Khatiwada & Ghimirey 2009). In May 2007, the first author observed two adult Snow Leopards in Til Gomba where we obtained camera-trap pictures during this study. Additionally, four independent sightings of Snow Leopards were reported  This survey confirms the presence of Snow Leopard in Limi Valley in Humla by successfully bringing the first photographic evidence to supplement previous local sightings and indirect signs. Implementation of predatorfriendly human-leopard interaction measures such as predator-proofed corrals, improved husbandry practices, conservation education and livelihood improvement programs are recommended to ensure the survival of Snow Leopards in the Limi Valley.