An Ethnobotanical Study of Wild Edible Plants in Tach Gayint District, South Gondar Zone, Amhara Region, Northwestern Ethiopia

The purpose of this study was to carry out an ethnobotanical and ethnopharmacological investigation on wild edible plants and their value to households in the Tach Gayint district of South Gondar Zone of northwestern Ethiopia. A total of 175 informants (56 women and 119 males) were interviewed for ethnobotanical data, and 25 of them were key informants. Data collection techniques included semistructured interviews, guided field walks, and focus group discussions. Quantitative analytical tools were employed for ethnobotanical methods including preference ranking and direct matrix ranking techniques to analyse the data. 36 species of wild edible plants have been identified in the study area. Of these plant species, shrubs account for 15 (42%), followed by herbs 13 (36%) and trees 8 (22%). Regarding the edible parts, fruits account for 19 (53%) followed by young shoots, leaves, and flowers, 4 (11%) for each. These plant species are eaten raw (86%) or cooked (14%) and most are collected by younger people for herding cattle. According to the preference ranking analysis, the fruit of Opuntia ficus-indica is the most preferred plant species because its sweet taste. Although Cordia africana, the most commonly used multipurpose wild edible plant species, is mostly exploited due to human activity, activities such as the production of charcoal, the gathering of firewood, the construction of homes, and the use of agricultural tools all played a significant role in the plant's eventual extinction. In the study area, agricultural expansion was the main cause of putting wild edible plants in danger. It is best to cultivate and manage edible plants in a backyard garden and to perform more research on popular edible plant species.


Introduction
Rural communities in developing countries rely on edible wild plants to meet their nutritional demands during times of food scarcity. According to studies by [1], wild edible plants (WEPs) are predominantly consumed as addition to conventional diets in numerous African locations. Food plants are occasionally eaten for their health benefts, and several species are frequently used as herbal remedies in traditional phytotherapy to treat a variety of illnesses and problems [2]. Te World Health Organization (WHO) reports that conventional herbal medicines are used by 80% of people in developing countries [3]. Since ancient times, indigenous people around the world have used a variety of herbs to treat burns and other ailments. Tey contain terpenoids, tannins, alkaloids, favonoids, essential oils, phenolic compounds, saponins, and fatty acids, which have a wide range of pharmacological potential, including anticancer, antidiabetic, and antimicrobial efects, as well as cosmetic properties [4].
Plants are a signifcant source of active antioxidants that protect the body from many oxidative stress, according to [5] reports. Pharmacotherapy, especially for the treatment of cancer and infectious disorders, has been dominated and signifcantly infuenced by natural chemicals and their biosynthetic modifcations [6]. In Ethiopia, there are about 6000 species of higher plants, 10% of which are endemic. Te country is considered a hotspot for biodiversity, origin, and diversifcation of a signifcant amount of domesticated food plants, as well as those of their wild relatives. According to ethnobotanical studies conducted in Ethiopia, the plant species, Echinops kebericho, Kalanchoe petitiana, Lippia adoensis, and Aloe adigratan [7], Clematis longicauda, Millettia ferruginea, and Pycnostachys abyssinica [8], and Aloe yavellana, Erythrina brucei, Solanecio gigas, and Tunbergia ruspolii [9], were reported as endemic medicinal plants and Dioscorea praehensilis [10] was reported as a wild edible plant in the fora.
Many rural populations are very skilled in making use of plant resources, according to a certain research conducted in Ethiopia [11,12]. In this way, older members of the community are frequently the most signifcant sources of plant knowledge [13]. Native people prefer WEPs not only for their regular nutritional content but also for their ability to replace a variety of food gaps, as well as for their numerous applications to the health of humans, animals, and the environment [14]. As reported by Lulekal et al. [15], 413 WEPs are consumed in Ethiopia from food insecurity areas. For instance, in southern Ethiopia's Konso, Derashe, and Burji special districts, WEPs appear to be better because of the periodic climate shocks that impede agricultural productivity and cause food shortages [16]. Similarly, the consumption of WEP is common in northern Ethiopia, such as Adansonia digitata, Balanites aegyptiaca, Carissa spinarum, Cordia africana, Tamarindus indica, Ximenia americana, and Ziziphus spina-christi [17]. Most of the WEPs are consumed by children specially, the fruits of Ficus spp., Carissa spinarum, and Rosa abyssinica, among others. In Ethiopia, the consumption of wild foods and their importance in meeting nutritional needs in rural communities, as well as socioeconomic, cultural, and traditional aspects, is still underreported and receives little attention [18]. Te Tach Gayint district is one of the food insecure areas of the region. Terefore, extensive ethnobotanical research is necessary to gather information on plants and related indigenous knowledge for conservation and sustainable use. Tere are relatively few or no studies on traditional knowledge and practice with WEP species in remote areas of Ethiopia, where its use is quite common in times of surplus and hunger. Terefore, the objective of this study was to assess and gather indigenous knowledge used by the people of the Tach Gayint district, as well as to list the WEP species that were consumed by the locals.

Description of the Study Area.
Te study was conducted at the Tach Gayint district of South Gondar Zone of the Amhara Regional State of northwestern Ethiopia located within 1129′59.99″-1115′36″ and 3814′60″-3837′42″ latitude and longitude, respectively ( Figure 1). Te Tach Gayint district is located at a distance of 766 km from Addis Ababa (capital city). It is 197 km from Bahir Dar city (regional city) and 100 km from Debre Tabor (zone town). Elevation varies between 750 and 2800 metres above the sea level. Te district is bounded on the north by the Lay Gayint, on the east by North Wollo, on the West by Simada, and on the South by Lay Gayint [19]. Te district has a total of 16 kebeles administrations and a total population of 105,441 people, with 59,823 men and 45,618 women. 92.2% of the Tach Gayint residents are Orthodox Christians, 7.7% are Muslims, 0.001% are Catholics, and 0.001 percent are the members of a protestant church. Amhara makes up 99.9% of the population, indicating that the residents of Tach Gayint are practically all from the same ethnic group. Dega, Woina Dega, and Kola are the three agroecological zones in the research area. Dega (also known as Wurch in the local tongue) is a highland agroecological zone with a cool climate. Woina Dega is a subtropical agroecological zone with a moderate climate and is known locally as humid. Kola, which means "hot" in the native language, is an agroecological zone with hot climatic conditions [20].
Te research area is one of the most drought-prone and susceptible parts of the region, and land resources can be used for a variety of socioeconomic and subsistence needs. Approximately 74% of the land used for cereals, annual and perennial crops, grazing, forests and shrubs, settlements, and wastelands make up the remaining land use. Tere is just one rainy season (referred to locally as "kiremt"), which is essential for the growth of both long-cycle and short-cycle crops. Crop production is completely dependent on rainfall. A mixed farming system, which produces crops through multiple cropping on a small amount of land intensively, has been utilised in the region. Tef (Eragrostis tef), wheat (Triticum aestivum), barley (Hordeum vulgare), beans (Vicia faba), wasera wheat (Triticum aestivum), and barley (Hordeum vulgare) grown together are the main food crops grown in the area. Continuous cropping has traditionally been accomplished by crop rotation, which alternates the production of cereal crops with the cultivation of legume crops to sustain soil fertility [21].

Climate.
Based on twenty years of weather data obtained from the National Meteorological Service Agency, the district receives 1390 mm of annual rainfall on an average, with the yearly rainfall varying between 1000 and 1600 mm across most of the district and falling primarily between May and September. Te dry season runs from December to March. Te average annual maximum and minimum temperatures are 24.9°C and 8.5°C, respectively ( Figure 2).

Reconnaissance Survey and Site Selection.
A reconnaissance survey was conducted from September 2 to September 30, 2020, to create a mental picture of the research area and type of vegetation, natural resources, and indigenous knowledge associated with WEPs attributes. Five kebeles (Agate, Eferata, Beteyohanes, Aneseta, and Aduka) were purposively chosen from 16 kebeles because they had good vegetation cover and the availability of WEPs. Based on the recommendations of elders, farmers, and locals, the fundamental information for site selection was obtained from the Tach Gayint district before conducting the feld study.
conservation of WEPs as well as the overall interaction between people and plants, 30 individuals from each of the fve kebeles were randomly chosen by the lottery method from a list of each kebeles' inhabitants. From each of the fve study kebele administrations, fve key informants were purposively selected with the assistance of administrators and elders. Older people, WEP collectors, sellers, cookers, and buyers were among the key informants. Data collection methods included semistructured interviews, feld observations, and focus group discussion (FGD). All informants participated in semistructured interviews to collect ethnobotanical data [22]. Interviews with local experts were arranged for the month of October, and two rounds of feldwork in November and December were used to collect ethnobotanical data. A list of questions that were addressed in the discussion with the informants was developed in a specifc order. Te interviewer was asked to cover the main points on the checklist while giving the fexibility to explore any relevant issues raised by the interviewee. Te researcher conducted all the interviews with the local's language in Amharic.
On the basis of the informants' level of interest, the location and the time of the talk were chosen. All relevant data, including vernacular names, habits, habitats, parts used, collection methods, and modes of consumption, as well as the strategies employed by the informants for the conservation of WEPs and the preservation of indigenous knowledge in these food plants, were recorded during guided feld interviews with the informants. Field observations were made with the help of local guides and Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine interviewees in the study area. Focus group discussions (composed of informants from each of the fve kebeles) were conducted by choosing seven participants from a variety of groups, including elders, men, women, children, and other people, to gather triangulated information on WEPs as they came to an agreement. Te information gathered through group discussions was useful in comparing the data collected through semistructured interviews. Before and throughout the collection of ethnobotanical data collection, brief focus group talks were held [23].

Voucher Specimen Collection and Identifcation.
With the help of informants and local feld assistants, a voucher specimen collection was carried out. In this period, feldwork operations were documented, including notes on the fora and the accompanying native knowledge. In the feld, photographs were also taken to document the locations, the components of the plants, and other important information. Te Flora of Ethiopia and Eritrea's taxonomy keys were used for specimen identifcation [24].

Data Analysis.
Te ethnobotanical data were compiled and entered into an Excel spreadsheet. For quantitative information such as edible parts, growth forms, harvesting techniques, and habitats where the majority of WEPs are located, descriptive analysis was carried out using descriptive statistical techniques such as the percentage and Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS). Direct matrix ranking was used to identify the multipurpose uses of WEPs that were frequently mentioned by the key informants and preference ranking was used to determine the degree of preference for WEPs.

Diversity of Wild Edible Plants.
A total of 36 species of WEPs were identifed in 25 genera and 22 families. In the district with respect to the diversity of the collected species, the highest numbers of WEPs were reported in the families of Moraceae and Anacardiaceae contributing four species (11.1%) each, followed by Lamiaceae and Polygonaceae, which represent three species (8.3%) of each (Table 1).

Growth Forms of Wild Edible Plants.
Among the WEPs in the study area, shrubs were the highest growth forms with 15 (42%) species, followed by herbs with 13 (36%) species ( Figure 3). Te result revealed that shrubs accounted for the highest proportion of growth forms.

Sources of Edible Wild Plants.
Te edible plants were collected from various sources. Te current study revealed that most (27 species, 75%) of the species of WEPs were collected from natural forests followed by farmlands (4 species, 11%) ( Figure 4).

Plant Parts Used as Food.
In the study area, the most widely used plant part as a food includes fruits, tubers, young shoots, fowers, gums, leaves, and seeds. Te most widely consumed plant parts were fruits with 19 species (53%), followed by young shoots, leaves, and fowers with 4 species (11%) each ( Figure 5).

Mode of Consumption.
Wild edible plants in the study area were consumed for supplementing staple foods and flling food gaps during drought and famine. About 31 (86%) species were reported to be eaten raw, whereas 5 (14%) species were consumed cooked or processed ( Figure 6).

Seasonal Availability of Edible Wild Plants in the Study
Area. In the study area, all of the reported wild food plants were accessible at various seasons. About 17 species (47.2%) were found in the spring season followed by 15 species (41.7%) in the fall season, while about 4 species (11.1%) of the plant species were also found in the summer season. Tis implies that the local community can consume at any time when famine and droughts arise; hence, it can serve as an insurance response to disasters of climate change and variability.

Harvesting Techniques of WEPs Reported by Informants.
Tree primary techniques were mostly used to gather wild food plants: digging (tubers), plucking (fruits, leaves, and gums), and collecting fallen seeds and fruits from the ground. Picking from mother plants, gathering from the ground, and digging were the strategies that were most prevalent ( Figure 7).  Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine

Variation of Indigenous Knowledge on Use of WEPs.
Indigenous knowledge was reported by males than females, and the diference was signifcant (P < 0.05) when the number of WEPs reported by each group was compared. Te result obtained much of the knowledge of WEPs in the study area from informants of younger ages , when compared with the elder. Tere was a signifcant diference (P < 0.05) in the number of WEPs reported by aged members of the community (>39 years) and young aged members (16-39 years). Similarly, there was a signifcant diference (P < 0.05) in the number of WEPs that were reported by literate and illiterate informants, key informants, and general informants in the study area (Table 2).

Preference
Ranking. Preference ranking for the fve WEPs frequently used by the local community was made by ten informants. Te result obtained from the preference ranking analysis showed that Opuntia fcus-indica was the best preferred wild edible plant based on its taste of quality perceived by informants followed by Ficus vasta (Table 3).

Direct Matrix
Ranking. Direct matrix ranking was performed to evaluate the relative importance of each of the WEP species. Te direct matrix ranking of the fve most popular multipurpose WEP species showed that Cordia africana and Acacia abyssinica ranked 1 st and 2 nd , respectively (Table 4).

Diversity of Wild Edible Plants.
A total of 36 species of WEPs were identifed in 25 genera and 22 families. In the district with respect to the diversity of collected species, the highest numbers of WEPs were reported in the families of   Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine Moraceae and Anacardiaceae contributing to four species (11.1%), followed by Lamiaceae and Polygonaceae, which represent three species (8.3%) of each. In the Tach Gayint district, diversity of WEPs consumed in the study area was lower than that reported in other studies within Ethiopia, and it was [25] reported that 137 WEP species were used by the Konso ethnic community in Southern Ethiopia. Te diversity of WEPs in the study area was comparable to that found in a study [26] conducted in Quara District, Northwest Ethiopia, which listed 36 WEP species. Te fndings were quite comparable to those of [27], who reported 37 WEP species in the semiarid East Shewa zone of Ethiopia. However, there was greater diversity in the results than in the semiarid lowlands of Southern, Ethiopia [28], where 30 WEP species were reported. Tese diferences might be explained by variations in local biota diversity, environmental variables, local customs, and indigenous culture.

Growth Forms of Wild Edible Plants.
In the study area, shrubs accounted for the highest growth form with 15 (42%) species, followed by herbs with 13 (36%) species (Figure 3). Te result indicated that shrubs accounted for the highest proportion of growth forms. Tis fnding also resembles with the works of [29] in the Burji Segan area of Southern Nations, Nationalities, and Peoples' Region (SNNPR), Ethiopia. Te higher frequency of using shrubs and herbs might be due to the fact that shrubs and herbs are leading growth forms than trees in the study area.

Plant Parts Used and Mode of Consumption.
Te most common plant parts consumed in the study area were fruits (53%) followed by young shoots, leaves, and fowers (11%), and the remaining amount (36%) accounted for gums, seeds, and tubers ( Figure 5). Tis shows that humans have consumed parts of various species of WEPs. Te result coincides  with the fnding [30] where fruits were reported to be more utilized plant parts than other plant parts in the Amaro district of Southern Ethiopia. Te high percentage of raw edibles may be the result of people not being encouraged to gather and use plant parts at home in preference to plant products cultivated for food, and it may be healthy to consume in raw form. Raw fruits are regarded as good sources of nutrients that do not lose their nutrients, but if they are boiled or cooked, some important nutrients may be lost.

Seasonal Availability of Wild Edible Plants.
According to the explanations of the studied WEPs, they were available throughout the spring and fall seasons. Tis indicates that the majority of them are annual species that need moisture and that the season was ideally suited for their growth and reproduction due to the fact that most WEPs produced fruits in low-moisture environments, compared to staple food crops that failed during droughts and unpredictable rainfall, and the result is in line with the fnding of [31] [32].
In periods of severe food scarcity, people also consumed several WEPs that were often used as livestock feed in normal times.    [34]. Every plant has diferent conditions or times when it is consumed. Others are only taken during times of great food scarcity and shortage, but some plants are regularly consumed even when there is a signifcant food supply [35]. During times of food scarcity, plants that are regularly consumed are highly valued at all levels of the society. Most of the WEPs were eaten as extra food rather than as regular meals [36].
According to the ranking of the top fve WEPs by the ten key informants, O. fcus-indica stood frst followed by F. vasta, Z. spina-christi, F. sur, and U. simensis, respectively. Tis shows that the abovementioned plant species have been identifed as socially acceptable and signifcant in the study area due to their frequent consumption by a large number of users, as well as their good taste quality (Table 3).

Direct Matrix Ranking.
Te results of a direct matrix ranking exercise revealed that C. africana, A. abyssinica, and C. spinarum were the top three multipurpose WEPs in the study area ( Table 4). As indicated in Table 4 of the fndings, these plants are more adversely afected by their nonfood applications than by the reported human food values. Te factors that contributed most to the extinction of the species in the study area were the overuse of multipurpose wild food plant species for things such as fuel wood, charcoal production, agricultural equipment, and fencing. Te fndings of this study suggest immediate preservation measures to protect rapidly declining species of multipurpose WEPs in the study area. Tis demonstrates how the locals have used the multipurpose plant species in a variety of ways to meet their basic needs, and these fndings are comparable to those of a study conducted by [37] in the bufer area of Awash National Park, Ethiopia.

Indigenous Knowledge Variation on Use of WEPs.
Te male informants in the study area were more knowledgeable than the female informants. Tis might be related to the diferences in occupation, including men's great attraction to WEPs during caw keeping and wood collection for house construction. Tis contradicts the study by [38] in the Chelia District of West-Central Ethiopia, which found that women were more knowledgeable than men. When compared to older persons, younger informants had a better understanding of WEPs in the study area. In this situation, it is possible that people who spend the most of their time herding cattle come into contact with several WEPs in this situation.  [40] in the semiarid lowlands of southern Ethiopia.
According to the informants' responses, the lack of a community institution, a conservation advisor, planting material (seedlings), infertile soil, and drought are some of the factors that impede the development of conservation practices in the study area, leading to fewer conservation eforts on WEPs in the area. Te challenges listed in this study are comparable to those mentioned by [41], which include knowledge, storage, and seasonality of fruits. Due to a lack of conservation experts, local inhabitants were unaware of the potential of native wild food plants or how to add value by processing diferent products to improve rural communities' nutritional status, health, income, and livelihoods. It is intended that increasing public understanding of the signifcance of WEPs and the farming practices that produce them will encourage their preservation and long-term use.

Limitation of the Study
Due to a lack of funding for this study, the proximate composition, mineral contents, antinutritional components, and phytochemical analyses of each plant were not completed.

Conclusions.
In the study area, a total of 36 WEP species have been identifed. Most of the WEP species that were found to be edible in the study area are used by the inhabitants for Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 9 a range of other things in addition to food and medicine. People in the area pick the wild plants for food, but they also use them to make furniture, building materials, and frewood. Particularly in times of food scarcity and as a supplement to cultivated plants, these wild edibles are popular with consumers. Local communities are the custodians of the native knowledge needed to utilise these WEPs. Te community uses the majority of the identifed WEP species in the study area for a range of uses beyond eating. Te region's multifunctional WEPs are now in danger. In the study area, there are several threats to WEP species, but the government has not taken sufcient action; and there is no local conservation organisation or focal person. In addition, there was no ecological management plan in place, and the study site did not adhere to the guidelines. Due to frequent (daily) visits by residents of nearby villages for their daily needs of fuel (charcoal), agricultural expansion, and construction wood, among other things, the WEP resources are currently being depleted at a rapid rate.

Recommendations.
Te fndings highlight the need for more investigation into the nutritional composition and processing methods of each species listed, as well as pharmacological properties of species used in nutraceuticals because they are also used in medicine. It is vital to investigate any potential drawbacks to using these wild foods. Improved in situ conservation of WEPs should result from the participation of the local community. Some highly valuable wild food plants are being overexploited as a result of their use; therefore, a conservation strategy should be created and implemented for the long-term management of plants.

Data Availability
Te data used to support the fndings of this study are included within the article.

Conflicts of Interest
Te authors declare that there are no conficts of interest.