Uses of Local Plant Biodiversity among the Tribal Communities of Pangi Valley of District Chamba in Cold Desert Himalaya, India

Pangi Valley is the interior most tribal area in Himachal Pradesh of Northwest Himalaya. An ethnobotanical investigation is attempted to highlight the traditional knowledge of medicinal plants being used by the tribes of Pangi Valley. Various localities visited in the valley 2-3 times in a year and ethnobotanical information was collected through interviews with elderly people, women, shepherds, and local vaids during May 2009 to September 2013. This paper documented 67 plant species from 59 genera and 36 families along with their botanical name, local name, family name, habit, medicinal parts used, and traditional usage, including the use of 35 plants with new ethnomedicinal and other use from the study area for the first time. Wild plants represent an important part of their medicinal, dietary, handicraft, fuel wood, veterinary, and fodder components. These tribal inhabitants and migrants depend on the wild plant resources for food, medicines, fuel, fibre, timber, and household articles for their livelihood security. The present study documents and contributes significant ethnobotanical information from the remote high altitude and difficult region of the world, which remains cut off from rest of the world for 6-7 months due to heavy snowfall.


Introduction
The cold arid region of India also called "Trans Himalayan region" lies in the western edge of the Himalayas. It comprises Ladakh in J&K, Lahaul and Spiti, Kinnaur, Pangi Valley of district Chamba in Himachal Pradesh, and Niti and Nelong Valley of Uttarakhand. The vegetation here is subjected to extreme climatic conditions such as temperature variation (low temperature), scanty rainfall, speedy winds, exposure to ultraviolet radiations, reduced oxygen levels, low humidity, and many small glaciers. Pangi Valley, a subdivision of Chamba district is the remote high-altitudinal area and one of the most beautiful valley in the Northwest Himalaya. fragrans, Potentilla spp., Onosma hispidum, Spinosa stracheyi, Geranium wallichianum, Jurinea macrocephela, Picrorhiza kurroa, Dracocephalum heterophyllum, Impatiens brachycentra, and Primula macrophylla. Covering an area of 103 sq km, Saichu Tuan Nala Wild Life Sanctuary has been established in the valley for the protection and conservation of wildlife. The wild animals found in the valley are ibex, himalayan tahr, brown bear, black bear, musk deer, snow leopard, and bharal. The birds include the monal and koklas pheasants, himalayan western tragopan, snow peacock, snow pigeon, and chukor. This area was difficult to explore due to its remoteness, difficult geographic condition, and poor connectivity via roads due to heavy snow fall during winter season which keeps the area cut off from rest of the world for nearly six to seven months. These tribal inhabitants and migrants are dependent on the wild plant resources for medicines, food, fuel, fibre, timber, and household articles to a great extent for their livelihood security. The area due to its remoteness and difficult geographic conditions has not been included in the earlier floristic surveys of Chamba district by Singh and Sharma [1]. So far very few workers have visited the area for taxonomical studies [2] and for some cytological studies of dicot plants [3][4][5][6][7][8][9]. No information on traditional use of plant resources of Pangi Valley and its adjoining areas is available so far. Keeping in view the nonavailability of ethnobotanical information, strong belief of local people in traditional therapy, and scope for inventorization of new medicinal and common use, the present study was designed to provide comprehensive information on traditional phytotherapy and ethnobotanical information in cold desert region of Pangi Valley in Northwest Himalaya.

Materials and Methods
Ethnobotanical surveys were carried out from May 2009 to September 2012, when the area is snow-free. Different localities visited in the Pangi valley 2-3 times a year to document the utilization of medicinal plants ( First-hand information on traditional knowledge related to plant resource utilization by the inhabitants of the valley is gathered through interviews with elderly people, women, shepherds, and local vaids. Information about the local names of the plants, parts used, ailments treated, mode of administration, and curative properties was recorded. The plants were identified by Flora of Lahaul-Spiti [10] and Flora of Chamba District [1]. Besides, the plants were also compared to the samples preserved in the Herbarium (PUN) (PUN is the Herbarium Code of  In most of the cases leaves are used followed by stems, fruits, roots, and flowers. Wood, seeds, and bark are the least used plant parts ( Figure 2). The information on scientific name, local name of the plant, plant part used, and mode of preparation has been provided in alphabetical order in Table 1 [11][12][13][14], Essential oils ( -phellandrene, -cadinol), lactone, coumarin (I), isoimperatorin, prangolarin, furocoumarins [15], Roots are burnt to remove the snakes when they enter the house [16] Aconitum heterophyllum Wall. ex Royle (Herb), 51397 Ranunculaceae Atis Roots Root powder is used for fever and abdominal pain Alkaloids, atisine, hetisine, heteratisine, atisenol, heterophyllisine [17], hetidine, atidine, hetisinone, benzothteratising, F-dihydroatisine [14,15] Aconitum violaceum Jacq.

Asteraceae Shambar booti
Aerial parts Decoction is used against stomachache also vermifuge; Paste is used for cuts and wounds Asthma, epilepsy, nervous disorders, peptic ulcers, skin diseases, sores, insect repellent and stomachache. [13], The leaf paste is applied on cuts and wounds to check bleeding [22], Leaves contain essential oil up to 0.35%. Infusion of leaves given to asthma, nervous and spasmodic affections. Roots used as tonic and antiseptic [15] Astragalus himalayanus Klotz. (Herb), 58789 Papilionaceae Kayabachtp Flowers Seeds Powdered seeds and flowers given in strangury Inhabitant of Lahaul-spiti also use powdered seeds and flowers given in strangury [14] Astragalus rhizanthus Chenopodium album L.
(Herb), 58783 Chenopodiaceae Baathu Leaves and seeds Used for both green and grain Whole plant is used for ulcers, swellings and seminal weakness [25], indigestion [26] used for both for grain and green [27] The Scientific World Journal 5 Indigestion [26], ripe fruits are mixed with grains for consumption [28], red juicy inflorescence is eaten [27] Cicer microphyllum Benth.
(Herb), 58785 Papilionaceae Chiri Leaves and stems Used to cure mouth infection like mouth ulcer.
Fodder is suited best for cow to increase milk yield * Whole plant is used for increasing milk production and as general tonic for cows [25], sore mouth in cattle, tongue infection, jaundice [26]; immature are eaten, potential breeding material for cultivated Cicer [27] Clematis grata Wall.
(Herb), 58458 Ranunculaceae Bharani Leaves Leaves are used for the eruptions of the pimples and boils. Leaves are crushed either with water or urine of cow and a paste is made and then the paste is applied on the infected part to cure the infected part * Shoots used for ring worm, baldness, and as antimycotic [29] Crataegus songarica K.
Koch (Tree), 58778 Rosaceae Pingyath Fruits and wood Ripe fruits are eaten by school children and road side laborours. Wood is used to make plough for field; fruits are sold to contractors at 18-20 Rs/kg Fruits are edible and considered as cardio tonic. Wood is heavy, hard, and tough and is used for making tool hands, mallets, and other small items. Also used as fuel wood. Leaves are used for fodder [30] Cuscuta reflexa Roxb.
(Climber), 58484 Cuscutaceae Amarbel Whole plant The plant is used in jaundice. Ladies used whole plant as hair tonic by macerating the plant in Brassica oil * Whole plant extract is considered as antiviral [31] and analgesic [32], methanol extract of stem possesses antibacterial activity [32] Datisca cannabina L. It is used to treat fever and abdominal cramps caused by the intestinal worms Plant is a good fodder for goats which increases milk production and medicinally it is used for nerve disorders and sexual problems [25] 6 The Scientific World Journal A new iridoid glycoside 6 -O-beta-apiofuranosylsweroside was isolated from the ethanolic extract of the roots along with the known compounds loganin and sweroside [38]; fresh leaves are crushed and the extract is poured in eyes to cure the cataract and to improve vision. Fresh leaves are used as fodder for goats [35] Malva neglecta Wall.
(Herb), 58420 Malvaceae Sonchal Leaves Leaves of Stellaria media and Malva neglecta are cooked as mixed vegetable and eaten two or three times to cure constipation * Malaria, bladder, kidney disorder, laxative [26], and antiobesity [39] Mentha longifolia (L.) Huds. (Herb), 58771 Lamiaceae Marhendri Leaves with stems A paste is also made from the leaves and applied to burst the boils for pus removal. Leaves are placed inside the container containing seeds to kill and prevent the attack of insects on the stored seeds; leaves with stems are also placed inside the catteries to protect them from ticks, mites, and rat flea * Stomach problems, carminative, liver problems, vomiting and indigestion [25], cis-piperitone epoxide, piperitenone oxide, carvone, menthone, thymol,pulegone -thujone, (E) caryophyllene, myrcene, carvacrol, borneol, and p-cymene [40].
Medicinal use in diarrhoea and gut spasm, calcium channel blocking activity [41], insecticidal properties [42] Morina coulteriana Royle for incense due to pleasant aroma * The root powder is applied as poultice in boils for sucking the puss out of it and facilitating healing of the wounds [22]. Boils [13], used as incense in the preparation of dhoop and agarbattis and so forth yield an essential oil [15] Morus serrata Roxb.
(Tree), 58751 Moraceae Kruum Fruits and Wood Fruits are eaten and leaves are used as fodder; wood is used to make furniture The fruits are edible and are used as digestive stimulant and to relieve constipation and other digestive problems. The leaves are used for fodder. Wood is used for furniture and fuel [35] The Scientific World Journal 7 To cure anaemia, asthma, diarrhoea, jaundice, promotes secretion of bile and used in stomach diseases [13]; roots are used in abdominal pains and as a purgative too. One to two leaves are crushed and drops of the juice are poured in the nose to stop bleeding [22], constitute the drug picrorhiza, and are used as a substitute of Indian Gentian (Gentiana kurroo) containing picrorhizin, kutkin, and other compounds [15] Podophylum hexandrum

Royle (Herb), 58752
Berberidaceae Bankakri Roots Fruit Roots are dried and used in powered form for joint pains, arthritis, and asthma, Fruits are edible The root powder is administered internally for gastric ulcers. It is applied as a paste on cuts and wounds for regeneration of the tissues. Decoction of roots is used to cure liver problems [27] and hepatic diseases [13] Fruits are edible [15], diarrhoea [13,[44][45][46], blood diarrhoea [34,47], chronic constipation [14], anticancer [17] and they constitute a compound called, podophyllin, which is commonly used as a purgative; podophyllotoxin is the active principle. Podophyllin is an effective vermifuge. Recently it has acquired importance because of its possible use in controlling some forms of cancer. 8 The Scientific World Journal Rheum australe D. Don (Herb), 58765 Polygonaceae Chukari Roots and leaves Roots are sun dried and ground to powered form, then by adding water a thick paste is made and paste is then applied on the cuts and wounds for healing. Leaves are dried and ground with wheat flour for use during winters Used as astringent, laxative [15], asthma, cough, fever, piles, skin diseases, ulcers, and wounds [13]; the paste of the root mixed in water is applied externally in muscular injury, cuts, wounds, and mumps and to forehead in headache. The watery extract is given orally in stomach pains, constipation dysentery, swelling of the throat and tonsillitis. Lotion is dropped in ears in earache [22]; leaves are dried and ground with wheat flour for use during winters [27] Rubia cordifolia L. (Herb), 58780 Rubiaceae Mishtu Leaves and stems A paste of Rubia cordifolia and Cynodon dactylon (Doob grass) is applied around the snakebite * Root decoction with water is given to cure urinary infection; paste is used as an ointment to skin diseases.
Root is also used to make dyes [43]; roots are used for blood purification, liver problems, swellings, nervous disorders, gouts, rheumatism, uterine tumors, bleeding control, leucorrhoea, wounds, cough, bone fractures, and general debility [25] Rubus ellipticus Sm. The Scientific World Journal 9 and paste is made with milk, churned curd, or with the urine of cow and applied on the area around the snake bite on the body * Juice is prepared by smashing leaves and young shoots are applied to heal wounds. Root is crushed and the juice applied on the scalp prevents hair loss [43]; roots are boiled in water and applied externally for swellings and joints pain [25]; leaves are crushed and applied on wounds as an ant allergic [23] Sarcococca saligna (D. Joint pains [45], rheumatism [13,14,41,49], spasmogenic, hypotensive, bronchodilatory, duretic [15], and CNS depressant [17]. Roots are internally used for asthma, cough, paralysis, brain problems, nervous problems, rheumatism, gouts, throat problems, and influenza and as a sex stimulant [25]; root paste is applied externally to cure joint pains [23] Scorzonera virgata DC. (Herb), 58433 Asteraceae Thunbu

Leaves
Leaves are used to cure constipation Leaves are used to cure constipation [14] Silene vulgaris (Moench) Garcke (Herb), 57383 Caryophyllaceae Ghantolu Leaves Tender leaves are cooked as vegetable. Plants are also used as good fodder source Leaves and twigs and used as pot herb [14] and for bronchitis and asthma [26] Smilax aspera L. (Shrub), 58758
(Herb), 58415 Caryophyllaceae Kokuwa Leaves Leaves of Stellaria media and Malva neglecta are cooked as mixed vegetable and eaten two or three times to cure constipation * Burns, boils, bone fracture, and wounds [26]; leaf paste of the plant is also applied on wounds caused by burning [23] Taraxacum officinalis Wigg. (Herb), 58287 Asteraceae Dudhi Leaves, Roots Leaves are used as bandage on cuts. Root powder is used against headache and fever. It is also used to cure jaundice Liver complaints [13], jaundice, liver problems [46], rheumatic pains [45]; BA-hypoglycemic, antitumor [17], germacranolide acids, glucans, mannan, proteins, scopoletin, esculetin [15], diester of taraxanthin, lactupicrin, triterpenes [50], and fresh and dried rhizomes constitute the drug, The rhizomes roots and leaves are eaten as salad, used in soups, and cooked as vegetable. Leaves and open flowers are used in the manufacture of beer, wines, and other diet drinks [15].

Scrophulariaceae Jangli Tamaku
Flower and leaves Paste of flower and leaves is applied on boils Leaves and fruits are used in diarrhoea and pulmonary disease of cattle. Leaves are also used as demulcent, in pectoral complaints and as local application in piles, sunburns and inflammation of mucus membrane. Dried leaves are smoked and relieve irritation. Decoction of the leaves is used as a heart stimulant.
Don (Shrub), 58600 Caprifoliaceae Ka Fruits Ripe fruits are edible raw Fruit is considered to be laxative and blood purifier. Leaves extract is applied in menorrhagia [48] Viburnum grandiflorum Buch-Ham. ex D. Don (Shrub), 58768 Caprifoliaceae Tilhanj Fruits and stem Ripe fruits are eaten raw and stem is used as fuel * Seed juice is given to treat whooping cough and typhoid [53] Viola canescens Wall. ex Roxb (Herb), 58766 Violaceae Ratmundi/Vanksha Flowers Decoction of flowers with cinnamon, fennel, and clove is recommended for cough, asthma, and other respiratory tract problems * Antimalarial [52] and antiplasmodial activity [54]; leaves paste is mixed with brown sugar to be used against cough, cold, and other respiratory problems [35] Viscum album L. form is the most common type of formulation given while smoke is least used (Figure 4). Herbs are most frequently used followed by shrubs, trees, and climbers ( Figure 5). Angelica glauca, Artemisia maritima, Heracleum candicans, Origanum vulgare, Podophyllum hexandrum, Rheum australe, Thymus linearis, and Taraxacum officinale are used for treating more than one ailment. Eight plant species are used along with others or with more than one ingredient. Leaves of Stellaria media and Malva neglecta are cooked as mixed vegetable and eaten two or three times to cure constipation. Aerial parts of Thymus linearis in combination with Origanum vulgare are crushed with water and juice is extracted and given 4-5 teaspoons orally three times a day for high fever in children.

Discussion and Conclusions
The widespread use of herbal materials for the maintenance of health and treatment of diseases can be traced back to prehistoric times throughout many cultures and regions. The history of herbal medicine in India is very old. The oldest use of plants has been documented in ancient Hindu scriptures like Rigveda (4500-1600 BC), Charaka Samhita    (1000-800 BC), Sushruta Samhita (800-700 BC), and others. In India, the art of herbal healing has very deep roots in tribal culture and folklore. Even today, most of the tribal communities are dependent upon local traditional healing systems for their primary health care. Tribes of Pangi Valley depend highly on the wild plants for their livelihood security and medicines for various ailments. The ethnobotanical information discussed here is the first ever comprehensive ethnobotanical information gathered from the "Pangwal" tribe. The herbal medicines are considered to be of great importance among different rural or indigenous communities in many developing countries [56]. During the last few years, the use of herbal supplements increased from 2.5% to 12%. Today approximately 80% of the world's population uses traditional medicine for healthcare and therapeutic purposes [57]. The Himalayas, one of the world's biodiversity hot spots, have an approximately 10,000 species of plants, of which about 3,160 belonging to 71 genera are endemic. About 1,195 species of flowering plants are endemic to the Western Himalayas [58,59]. Cultural diversity in such remote mountain regions is closely linked to biodiversity, as there is a symbiotic relationship between habitats and cultures and between ecosystems and cultural identity; indeed, religious rules and rituals often strengthen this relationship and are characterized by a conservation ethic [60]. Present study also reveals that there is a strong relationship between tribes of Pangi Valley and plants of their surroundings. From the time immemorial, these people were highly dependent upon plant resources of their surroundings to fulfil their day-to-day requirements. As these people are very close to nature due to their inhabitation in isolated and remote tribal area, they have been able to gain a very vast and authentic experience of plant resources of their surroundings, which further need detailed investigation of ethnopharmacological studies from this tribal area. Screening and comparing the literature regarding ethnobotanical studies from other parts of Himachal Pradesh [10,14,22,27,34,36,45,47,61,62] and outside of Himachal Pradesh [19-21, 41, 44, 49] show a high number of species with unreported uses or new use with different part used and also new mode of use from the study area (Table 1). Pangi Valley is the semi-arid transition zone between the Northwest Himalaya and trans-Himalaya and thus has elements of both regions making the assemblage among the most diverse for any other region in the Northwest Himalaya. Because of its unique geographical situations, it harbours distinct ethnic and endemic biological diversity. This is one region in the country, where people still depend largely on plants for traditional healing system. A large number of plants/plant extracts/decoctions or pastes are equally used by tribes and folklore traditions in India for treatment of cuts, wounds, and burns [63][64][65][66][67]. Some of the plants such as Onosma hispida and Ranunculus laetus were reported for cuts and wounds from the research area are new to use. Smoke of flowers of Morina coulteriana and M. longifolia mixed with guggal (roots of Jurinea macrocephala) is used as incense during meditation and prayer. Use of pleasant aroma of smoke during meditation is also performed in Chinese culture [68]. Livestock is also considered one of the main sources of livelihood and important part of livelihood security, which rely mostly on fodder extracted from forests, grasslands, agriculture, and agroforestry in this interior remote tribal area. Some plants species such as Cicer microphyllum, Desmodium elegans, Hedera nepalensis, Impatiens sulcata, Lonicera quinquelocularis, Morus serrata, Origanum vulgare, Rumex acetosa, Silene vulgaris, Smilax aspera, and Ulmus wallichiana have also been documented as fodder plants in this study. Preparation of paste for the treatment of ailments is a common practice among the other tribal communities in India [69,70]. Plant parts are used commonly for snake bite and such plants used against snake bite are also needed to be explored for more detailed studies [71,72]. Present study explores information for the first time from the Pangi Valley on traditional therapeutic for joint pains, abdominal disorders, snake bites, skin disorders, cuts and wound, burns, high fever, cough, and many other diseases. This study contributes significant ethnobotanical information from the remote high altitude and difficult region of the world, which remained cut off from rest of the world for 6-7 months. Further investigations of those plants which are not explored earlier may lead to the exploration of several novel bioactive molecules and many new drugs to various diseases from such geographically isolated and unexplored area. The unsustainable harvesting of medicinal plants from the wild may cause a serious decline in plant population. It is thus recommended that cultivation techniques be designed, especially the important medicinal plant species that are used widely, to fulfil the need of the growing international herbal market and strategies to conserve the threatened biodiversity.