Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Parallelisms in the evolution of sea cucumbers (Echinodermata: Holothuroidea)

  • Published:
Paleontological Journal Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

The importance of taking into account parallelisms in the evolution of morphological characters is analyzed for the taxonomy of the class Holothuroidea. The establishment of the order Dactylochirotida and classification of the order Elasipodida serve as examples to illustrate insufficient appreciation of parallelisms in Holothuroidea. The following characters, evolving independently in different groups of sea cucumbers, are considered: a stout skeleton, reduction of the calcareous ring and the body wall sclerites; similarity of body shape; similarity in the shape of tentacles; reduction in the number of tentacles from 12 to 10 in different fam-ilies and subfamilies of the order Synaptida. Based on the analysis of morphological and molecular data, the family Deimatidae is transferred from the order Elasipodida to the order Aspidochirotida. It is hypothesized that the concave cup-shaped sclerites with three to five rays occurring in the family Laetmogonidae (order Elasipodida) are of paedomorphic origin and correspond to the early growth stages of the laetmogonid wheels; the concave cross-shaped sclerites of the families Elpidiidae and Psychropotidae may have originated from laetmogonid concave cup-shaped sclerites. Emended diagnosis of the order Elasipodida is proposed. The family Vaneyellidae previously synonymized by the author with the family Cucumariidae is reestablished, and its emended diagnosis is also proposed.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Bell, F.J., Studies in the Holothuroidea. I. On the genus Psolus and the forms allied thereto, Proc. Zool. Soc., London, 1882, pp. 641–660.

    Google Scholar 

  • Caso, M.E., El estado actual del estudio de los equinoder-mos de México, An. Centro Cienc. del Mar y Limnol. Univ. Nal. Autón. México, 1976, vol. 3, no. 1, pp. 1–56.

    Google Scholar 

  • Chun, C., Aus den Tiefen des Weltmeeres. Schilderungen von der Deutschen Tiefsee-Expedition, Jena: Verlag von Gustav Fischer, 1903.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cuénot, L., Anatomie, éthologie et systématique des échi-nodermes, in Traité de Zoologie: Anatomie, Systématique, Biologie, vol. 11: Échinodermes–Stomocordés–Procordés, Grassé, P.-P., Ed., Paris: Masson et Cie, 1948, pp. 3–272.

    Google Scholar 

  • David, B. and Mooi, R., Embryology supports a new theory of skeletal homologies for the phylum Echinodermata, C. R. Acad. Sci., Sér. 3, Sci. Vie, 1996, vol. 319, pp. 577–584.

    Google Scholar 

  • David, B. and Mooi, R., Major events in the evolution of echinoderms viewed by the light of embryology, in Echino-derms: San Francisco. Proc. Ninth Int. Echinoderm Conf. San Francisco, California, USA, 5-9 August 1996, Mooi, R. and Telford, M., Eds., Rotterdam, Brookfield: A.A. Balkema, 1998, pp. 21–28.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ekman, S., Systematisch-phylogenetische Studien über Elasipoden und Aspidochiroten, Zool. Jb. (Anat.), 1926, vol. 47, no. 4, pp. 429–540.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ekman, S., Holothurien der Deutschen Südpolar-Expedi-tion 1901–1903. Aus der Ostantarktis und von den Ker-guelen, Deutsche Südpolar-Exped. 1901–1903, 1927, vol. 19 (Zool. 11), pp. 361–419.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gebruk, A.V., Revision of the family Pelagothuriidae (Holothurioidea, Elasipoda) with a review of Enypniastes eximia and Pelagothuria natatrix: 1. Review of the family Pelagothuriidae (Elasipoda), Zool. Zh., 1989, vol. 68, no. 12, pp. 57–66.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gebruk, A.V., Revision of the Family Pelagothuriidae (Holothurioidea, Elasipoda) with a Review of Swimming Holothurians. 2. A Review of Swimming Holothurians, Zool. Zh., 1990a, vol. 69, no. 3, pp. 60–68.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gebruk, A.V., Glubokovodnye goloturii semeistva el’pidiid (Deep-Sea Holothurians of Elpidiidae Family), Levin, V.S., Ed., Moscow: Nauka, 1990b.

  • Hansen, B., Holothurioidea from depth exceeding 6000 meters, in Galathea Report: Scientific Results of the Danish DeepSea Expedition round the World 1950–1952, Wolff, T., Ed., Copenhagen: Danish Sci. Press, 1956, vol. 2, pp. 33–54.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hansen, B., Systematics and biology of the deep-sea holothurians. Part l. Elasipoda, in Galathea Report: Scien-tific Results of the Danish Deep-Sea Expedition round the World 1950–1952, Wolff, T., Ed., Copenhagen: Danish Sci. Press, 1975, vol. 13, pp. 1–262.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hansen, B., Scothothuria herringi, a new genus and species of bathypelagic Holothurians, Steenstrupia, 1978, vol. 5, no. 4, pp. 33–39.

    Google Scholar 

  • Heding, S.G., Holothurioidea. Part I. Apoda-Molpadio-idea-Gephyrothurioidea, in Danish Ingolf-Expedition, Copenhagen: Hagerup, 1935, vol. 4, part 9, pp. 5–84.

    Google Scholar 

  • Heding, S., A new dendrochirote Holothurian from South Africa, with some remarks on the Rhopalodinidae, Ann. S. Afr. Mus., 1937, vol. 32, part 2, pp. 31–40.

    Google Scholar 

  • Heding, S., Die Holothurien der Deutschen Tiefsee-Expe-dition. II. Aspidochirote und Elasipode Formen. Wissen-schaftliche Ergebnisse der Deutschen Tiefsee-Expedition auf dem Dampfer “Valdivia” 1898–1899, Jena: Gustav Fischer, 1940, vol. 24, no. 3, pp. 317–375.

    Google Scholar 

  • Heding, S.G., Holothurioidea. Part II. Aspidochirota-Ela-sipoda-Dendrochirota, in Danish Ingolf-Expedition, Copen-hagen: Hagerup, 1942, vol. 4, part 13, pp. 3–39.

    Google Scholar 

  • Heding, S.G. and Panning, A., Phyllophoridae. Eine Bear-beitung der polytentaculaten dendrochiroten Holothurien des zoologischen Museums in Kopenhagen, Spolia Zool. Mus. Haun., 1954, vol. 13, pp. 1–209.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ivanov, A.V. and Strelkov, A.A., Promyslovye bespozvonoch-nye dal’nevostochnykh morei: Opisanie stroeniya i atlas anatomii (Commercial Invertebrates of the Far Eastern Seas of Russia: Structural Description and Anatomical Atlas), Vladivostok: TINRO, 1949.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kaestner, A. Lehrbuch der Speziellen Zoologie. Teil I: Wir-bellose, Lief. 5, Jena: VEB Gustav Fischer Verlag, 1963.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kerr, A.M. and Kim, J., Phylogeny of Holothuroidea (Echinodermata) inferred from morphology, Zool. J. Linn. Soc., 2001, vol. 133, pp. 63–81.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Koehler, R. and Vaney, C., An Account of the Deep-Sea Holothurioidea Collected by the Royal Indian Marine Ship Investigator. Echinoderma of the Indian Museum. Holothuri-oidea, Calcutta: Indian Museum, 1905.

    Google Scholar 

  • Koehler, R. and Vaney, C., An Account of the Littoral Holothurioidea Collected by the Royal Indian Marine Ship Investigator. Echinoderma of the Indian Museum. Holothuri-oidea, Calcutta: Indian Museum, 1908.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ludwig, H., Die Seewalzen, in Dr H. G. Bronn’s Klassen und Ordnungen des Their-Reichs. Bd. 2. Abt. 3 Echinodermen (Stachelhäuter). Buch 1, Leipzig: C.F. Winter, 1889–1892.

  • Ludwig, H. and Heding, S., Die Holothurien der Deut-schen Tiefsee-Expedition. I. Fußlose und dendrochirote Formen, in Wissenschaftliche Ergebnisse der Deutschen Tief-see-Expedition auf dem Dampfer “Valdivia” 1898–1899, 1935, vol. 24, no. 2, pp. 123–214.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ludwig, H., The Holothurioidea. Reports on an Explora-tion off the West Coast of Mexico, Central and South America, and off the Galapagos Islands, in Charge of Alex-ander Agassiz, by the U. S. Fish Commission Steamer “Albatross,” during 1891. XII, Mem. Mus. Comp. Zool., 1894, vol. 17, part 3, pp. 1–183.

    Google Scholar 

  • Madsen, F.J. and Hansen, B., Echinodermata. Holothurio-idea, Marine Invertebr. Scand., 1994, no. 9, pp. 1–143.

    Google Scholar 

  • Malakhov, V.V. and Cherkasova, I.V., Metamorphosis of the sea cucumber Stichopus japonicus (Aspidochirota, Sti-chopodidae), Zool. Zh., 1992, vol. 71, no. 9, pp. 11–21.

    Google Scholar 

  • Massin, C., Holothuries nouvelles et peu connues récoltées en Indonésie au cours de la Snellius-II Expedition, Bull. Inst. R. Sci. Nat. Belg., Biol., 1987, vol. 57, pp. 97–121.

    Google Scholar 

  • McBride, E.W., Echinodermata, in The Cambrian Natural History, Harmer, S.F. and Shipley, A.E., Eds., London: MacMillan and Co., 1906, vol. 1, pp. 425–623.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mooi, R. and David, B., Skeletal homologies of Echino-derms, in Geobiology of Echinoderms, Waters, J.A. and Maples, C.G., Eds., Paleontol. Soc. Pap., vol. 3, Lawrence (KS): Paleontol. Soc. Am., 1997, pp. 305–335.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ohshima Hiroshi, Report on the holothurians collected by the United States fisheries steamer “Albatross” in the Northwestern Pacific during the summer of 1906, Proc. U. S. Natl. Mus., 1915, vol. 48, no. 2073, pp. 213–291.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ohshima Hiroshi, Report on the holothurians collected by the United States fisheries steamer “Albatross” in the Northwestern Pacific during the summer of 1906, Dobut-sugaku zasshi (Zool. Mag., Tokyo), 1918, vol. 30, pp. 393–401.

    Google Scholar 

  • Panning, A., Bemerkungen über die Holothurien-Familie Cucumariidae (Ordnung Dendrochirota), Mitt. Hamb. Zool. Mus. Inst., 1955, vol. 53, pp. 33–47.

    Google Scholar 

  • Panning, A., Bemerkungen über die Holothurien-Familie Cucumariidae (Ordnung Dendrochirota). 2. Teil. Die Gat-tungen Cladodactyla, Hemioedema und Psolidiella, Mitt. Hamb. Zool. Mus. Inst., 1957, vol. 55, pp. 25–38.

    Google Scholar 

  • Pawson, D.L., The Holothurian Fauna of Cook Strait, New Zealand, Zool. Publ. Victoria Univ. Wellington, 1963.

    Google Scholar 

  • Pawson, D.L., Phylogeny and evolutions of holothuroids, Treatise on Invertebrate Paleonthology: Part U. Echinoder-mata 3, Moore, R.C., Ed., Lawrence-Boulder: Geol. Soc. Am.-Univ. Kansas Press, 1966, vol. 2, pp. U641–U646.

    Google Scholar 

  • Pawson, D.L., Holothuroidea, in Synopsis and Classifica-tion of Living Organisms, Parker, S.P., Ed., New York: McGraw-Hill, 1982, vol. 2, pp. 791, 792, 813–818.

    Google Scholar 

  • Pawson, D.L. and Fell, H.B., A revised classification of the dendrochirote holothurians, Breviora, 1965, no. 214, pp. 1–7.

    Google Scholar 

  • Perrier, R., Holothuries, in Expédition scientifique du “Tra-vailleur” et du “Talisman” pendant les années 1880, 1881, 1882, 1883. Cirrhipèdes, Némertiens, Opistobranches, Holothuries, Paris: Masson, 1902, pp. 273–554.

    Google Scholar 

  • Reich, M., Different pathways in early evolution of the holothurian calcareous ring?, in Progress in Echinoderm Palaeobiology, Zamora, S. and Rábano, I., Eds., Cuadenos del Museo Geominero, no. 19, Madrid: Inst. Geol. España, 2015, pp. 137–145.

    Google Scholar 

  • Reich, M. and O’Loughlin, P.M., Modern holothurian cal-careous ring morphology—the need for more detailed stud-ies, Gulf Mex. Sci., 2011, vol. 29, no. 2, pp. 152–153.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rogacheva, A., Gebruk, A. and Alt, C.H.S., Swimming deep-sea holothurians (Echinodermata: Holothuroidea) on the northern Mid-Atlantic Ridge, Zoosymposia, 2012, vol. 7, pp. 213–224.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sars, M., Oversigt af Norges Echinodermer, Christiania: Trykt i Brgger & Christie’s bogtrykkerie, i commission hos J. Dybwad, 1861.

    Google Scholar 

  • Smirnov, A.V., System of the class Holothuroidea, Paleon-tol. J., 2012, vol. 46, no. 8, pp. 793–832.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Smirnov, A.V., Sea cucumbers symmetry (Echinodermata: Holothuroidea), Paleontol. J., 2014, vol. 48, no. 12, pp. 1215–1236.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Smirnov, A.V., Paedomorphosis and heterochrony in the origin and evolution of the class Holothuroidea, Paleontol. J., 2015, vol. 49, no. 14, pp. 1597–1615.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Solís-Marín, F.A., Systematics and Phylogeny of the Holothurian Family Synallactidae, The PhD Dissertation, Southampton: School of Ocean and Earth Science, Univer-sity of Southampton, 2003, 361 pp., Appendix 1–4. ftp://ftp.imarpe.pe/pub/biodiversidad/Taxonomia/ECHIN-ODERMATA/ Holothuroidea/Sol%EDs.2003.Systemat-ics%20and%20Phylogeny%20of%20the%20Holothurian% 20Family%20 Synallactidae.pdf.

    Google Scholar 

  • Thandar, A.S., A new genus and three new species of deep-sea holothuroids from the west coast of South Africa (Echi-nodermata), J. Zool., Lond., 1998, vol. 244, pp. 79–88.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Thandar, A.S., The holothuroid family Rhopalodinidae-Its composition, distribution, phylogeny, and taxonomic sta-tus, Afr. Zool., 2001, vol. 36, no. 2, pp. 229–243.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Thandar, A.S., New species and new records of dendrochi-rotid and dactylochirotid holothuroids (Echinodermata: Holothuroidea) from off the east coast of South Africa, Zootaxa, 2006, no. 1245, pp. 1–51.

    Google Scholar 

  • Théel, Hj., Note sur quelques Holothuries des Mers de la Nouvelle Zemble, Nova Acta Regiae Societatis Scientiarum, Upsaliensis, Ser. 3, 1877, vol. extra ord. 17, pp. 1–18.

    Google Scholar 

  • Théel, Hj., Report on the Holothurioidea dredged by H.M.S. Challenger during the years 1873–1876. Part I, in Rep. Sci. Res. H.M.S. Challenger during the Years 1873–76 under the Command of Captain George S. Nares and Captain Frank Tourle Thomson. Zoology, Thomson, C.W. and Mur-ray, J., Eds., London, Edinburgh, Dublin: Neill and Co., 1882, vol. 4, part 13.

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Zoological Institute, Russian Academy of Sciences, Universitetskaya nab. 1, St. Petersburg, 199034, Russia

    A. V. Smirnov

Authors
  1. A. V. Smirnov
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to A. V. Smirnov.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Smirnov, A.V. Parallelisms in the evolution of sea cucumbers (Echinodermata: Holothuroidea). Paleontol. J. 50, 1610–1625 (2016). https://doi.org/10.1134/S0031030116140082

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1134/S0031030116140082

Keywords

Search

Navigation