Taxonomic distribution of metabolic functions in bacteria associated with Trichodesmium consortia

ABSTRACT The photosynthetic and diazotrophic cyanobacterium Trichodesmium is a key contributor to marine biogeochemical cycles in the subtropical-oligotrophic oceans. Trichodesmium form colonies that harbor a distinct microbial community in comparison to the surrounding seawater. The presence of their associated bacteria can expand Trichodesmium’s functional potential and is predicted to influence the cycling of carbon, nitrogen, phosphorus, and iron (C, N, P, and Fe). To link the bacteria associated with Trichodesmium to key functional traits and elucidate how community structure can influence nutrient cycling, we characterized Red Sea Trichodesmium colonies using metagenomics and metaproteomics. Colonies harbored bacteria that typically associate with algae and particles, such as the ubiquitous Alteromonas macleodii, but also lineages specific to Trichodesmium, such as members from the order Balneolales. The majority of associated bacteria were auxotrophic for different vitamins, indicating their dependency on vitamin production by Trichodesmium. The associated bacteria carry functional traits including siderophore biosynthesis, reduced phosphorus metabolism, and denitrification pathways. The analysis supports Trichodesmium as an active hotspot for C, N, P, Fe, and vitamin exchange. In turn, Trichodesmium may rely on associated bacteria to meet its high Fe demand as several lineages synthesize photolabile siderophores (e.g., vibrioferrin, rhizoferrin, petrobactin) which can enhance the bioavailability of particulate Fe to the entire consortium. Collectively, the results indicate that Trichodesmium colonies provide a structure where these interactions can take place. While further studies are required to clarify the exact nature of these interactions, Trichodesmium’s reliance on particle and algae-associated bacteria and the observed redundancy of key functional traits likely underpins the resilience of Trichodesmium within an ever-changing global environment. IMPORTANCE Colonies of the cyanobacteria Trichodesmium act as a biological hotspot for the usage and recycling of key resources such as C, N, P, and Fe within an otherwise oligotrophic environment. While Trichodesmium colonies are known to interact and support a unique community of algae and particle-associated microbes, our understanding of the taxa that populate these colonies and the gene functions they encode is still limited. Characterizing the taxa and adaptive strategies that influence consortium physiology and its concomitant biogeochemistry is critical in a future ocean predicted to have increasingly resource-depleted regions.

biogeochemical cycling of C and N within the oligotrophic tropical and subtropical oceans (2-5).A key trait underpinning the functionality of Trichodesmium is that its filaments can cluster together to form macroscopic colonies several millimeters in size (1-4 mm) (6,7).There are several proposed benefits to colony formation including a reduction in grazing, facilitating microbial interactions, and enhancing iron (Fe) and phosphorous (P) uptake (8,9).One particular advantage of colony formation that has received widespread interest within the scientific community is the ability of Trichodes mium colonies to coordinate the capture of dust deposited on the ocean surface (10).Trichodesmium has subsequently been reported to actively select Fe and P-rich particles and shuffle them to the core of the colony (11)(12)(13)(14).Colony formation hereby adds an intriguing spatial component where Trichodesmium spp.can act as a biological hotspot not only for C and N but also for the uptake and recycling of key limiting nutrients such as Fe and P.
Trichodesmium colonies harbor a unique microbial consortium of epibiotic bacteria.Amplicon sequencing has shown these associated bacteria are distinct from popula tions in the surrounding oligotrophic surface waters (15)(16)(17).At the genetic level, the associated microbial community was found to enrich the total functional potential of the collective colony beyond the traits of N 2 and C fixation (18)(19)(20).By enhancing the genetic repertoire of metabolic functions, or traits, related to the nutrients C, N, Fe, and P, consortium members were predicted to influence the internal cycling of these nutrients (20)(21)(22)(23).To understand the biogeochemical contributions of Trichodesmium within the global ocean, it is therefore critical to look beyond the metabolic functions present in Trichodesmium alone and toward the processes taking place within the larger microbial community.While metagenomic studies of Trichodesmium colonies in the Atlantic (19) and the Pacific Oceans (18,23,24) highlighted key functional traits within the consortium, only one study linked pathways to the associated bacteria from eight metagenome-assembled bins (19).The assembly of genomes did not represent the majority of sequencing reads, hindering an exploration of traits to their taxonomic affiliation (19).Technological advances in the field of genomics now enable us to revisit and expand on these previous studies.Characterizing how functional traits are distributed across different taxa is critical to understanding the role associated bacteria play in Trichodesmium physiology and its concomitant influence over the cycling of key resources such as C and N.
A key functional trait to explore within the Trichodesmium consortium through metagenomics is the biosynthesis of Fe-chelating siderophore molecules.Recent evidence from the Red Sea highlights the unique ability of Trichodesmium consortium members to acquire particulate Fe from dust through the production of siderophores (12,13,22,25,26).Siderophore production has been shown to aid the dissolution of particulate Fe from dust, enhancing its bioavailability (27,28).While Trichodesmium is not known to synthesize siderophores (29), studies have suggested the presence of a putative siderophore uptake system in T. erythraeum IMS101 (30,31).Trichodesmium is hereby predicted to take advantage of siderophore-producing bacteria to increase the bioavailability of particulate Fe to the colony as a whole (22,28,30,32).In this manner, Trichodesmium interacts with its associated bacteria to meet the high Fe requirements needed for the processes of photosynthesis and N 2 fixation (33).This finding is particu larly relevant in light of climate model simulations, which predict an increase in regional dust emissions in areas such as the Red Sea where Trichodesmium is known to occur (34,35).While Trichodesmium blooms are a re-occurring phenomenon in this area (36), it represents an under-sampled region where the taxonomic composition of its consortium has not been explored genetically.Furthermore, the presence and taxonomic distribu tion of siderophore biosynthesis pathways within Trichodesmium colonies have not yet been interrogated in depth.Understanding which consortium members positively enhance the bioavailability of Fe within the Trichodesmium consortium will further help elucidate key interactions and community dynamics taking place within the colony.
In this study, we conducted an in-depth metagenomic study of Trichodesmium colonies collected from the Red Sea.To elucidate how the community structure influences the functional dynamics of the Trichodesmium consortium, we identified the different taxa that make up the Trichodesmium consortium and examined the presence of functional traits involved in nutrient cycling.We probed our data set for genes and pathways involved in the uptake and metabolism of N, P, Fe, and vitamins.In addition, we contextualize these findings by comparing them to previous metagenomic studies of Trichodesmium colonies obtained from the Atlantic and the Pacific oceans.Finally, we analyzed genes of interest to a proteomic data set from Trichodesmium colonies collected in parallel.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
A set of 52 non-redundant metagenomic-assembled genomes (MAGs) was obtained from Trichodesmium colonies, following quality filtering.Of these MAGs, 42 were of high quality (90% complete and <5% redundancy (Table S1) (37).The 52 MAGs accounted for ~80% of the total sample reads indicating that these MAGs sufficiently captured the diversity of the Trichodesmium consortium.The relative abundance of the different MAGs was consistent across the three samples (Fig. S1) with 71% ± 6 of the reads mapping to T. thiebautii MAG 52.The remaining MAGs collectively represented the associated bacteria of T. thiebautii MAG 52, in this analysis.In parallel to the metagenomic analysis, a proteomic data set matched to 1,253 protein sequences from the 52 different MAGs further probed the activity of Trichodesmium colonies within the Red Sea with ±90% of the total 14,074 spectral counts matching to T. thiebautii MAG 52 (Table S3).

Trichodesmium colonies host a diverse and flexible consortium of bacteria
Trichodesmium colonies consisted of a single Trichodesmium species (T.thiebautii MAG 52) and a diverse consortium of 51 associated bacteria spanning at least 10 different taxonomic orders (Fig. 1).Unlike a previous study (38), our samples did not include any non-diazotrophic Trichodesmium populations and the 51 MAGs hereby represent the associated bacteria of T. thiebautii MAG 52.The majority of the associated bacterial MAGs belonged to taxonomic orders known to be present in Trichodesmium colonies, including Rhodobacterales, Pseudomonadales, Balneolales, Rhodospirillales, Flavobac terales, Enterobacterales, Rhizobiales, and Sphingomonadales (15,(17)(18)(19).
We compared our 52 MAGs with MAGs assembled from previous metagenomic data sets of Trichodesmium colonies.To allow intercomparisons across data sets, samples were all processed using the same pipeline.In this manner, we were able to assemble an additional 29 MAGs from the Red Sea (38), and 19 MAGs from colonies collected in the Atlantic (19) and the Pacific Ocean (18,19), respectively (Table S2).Of these MAGs, 11 were common between both Red Sea data sets.As these samples were obtained from two different seasons, these MAGs putatively represent core re-occurring members of the Trichodesmium consortium (Fig. S2).These 11 MAGs included typical particle-and algae-associated lineages (39)(40)(41) of Marinobacter sp.(MAG23; R-02) and Alcanivorax sp.(MAG 47; R-15) from the order Pseudomonadales; Rhodobacter sp.(MAG 28; R-29) and Sulfitobacter sp.(MAG29; R-10) from the order Rhodobacterales.Alteromonas macleodii (MAG 10), a ubiquitous bacterium often found in association with phototrophs (42) and previously isolated from T. erythraeum IMS101 cultures (43), was also detected in the previous Red Sea data set but did not reach the genome completeness threshold (>75%).Roseibium aggregatum (MAG 17), formerly known as Labrenzia sp., had previously been identified as a relevant denitrifying bacteria associated with Trichodesmium colonies in the Red Sea (44).When comparing our data set to those obtained from the Atlantic, the North and South Pacific oceans (18,19,23,24,38), we observed taxonomic similarities at the order level rather than at the species level.While most taxonomic orders re-occurred across all data sets, only one Balneolales genome (MAG 33) was present among all Trichodesmium metagenomic data sets (T-09; R-03) (Fig. S2).MAGs assembled from these previous data sets accounted for less than 45% of the total sample reads, which may partially explain the lack of common MAGs across ocean basins.Nonetheless, the presence of only a few re-occurring MAGs coupled with the re-occurrence of larger taxonomic groups across all ocean basins highlights the presence of a flexible assem blage of associated bacteria typically found in association with particles and algae.These observed characteristics may have important implications for the community structure and functioning of the Trichodesmium consortium.

Trichodesmium-associated bacteria synthesize diverse photolabile sidero phores which may increase iron availability from dust
We explored the different Fe-uptake mechanisms present within the Trichodesmium consortium, as N 2 and C fixation in Trichodesmium is often constrained by Fe availability (33,45).Despite the high Fe requirements of Trichodesmium (33), T. thiebautii (MAG 52) only contained genes for the uptake of free ferrous (Fe +2 ) and ferric (Fe +3 ) iron, but not organic Fe, suggesting that it is limited to a narrow range of forms it can take up directly (Fig. 2).By contrast, MAGs of the associated bacteria contained a large diversity of Fe-uptake genes which include the ability to take up organically bound Fe, such as heme, citrate, and siderophores (Fig. 2).The proteome of the Trichodesmium consortium further indicated that, at the time of sampling, Trichodesmium MAG 52 was actively taking up Fe through the presence of a Fe +3 uptake transporter (K02012) and increasing its intracellular Fe-pool through the presence of Fe-storage proteins (K03594; K04047) (Table S3).
The genomes of 10 Trichodesmium-associated bacteria spread across six different taxonomic orders encoded several different siderophore biosynthetic gene clusters (BGCs) (Fig. 2).The presence of a siderophore biosynthesis pathway was strain specific and not shared by an entire clade or lineage.Similar to previous studies, T. thiebautii MAG 52 did not contain any known siderophore biosynthesis pathways (18,31).The sidero phore BGCs could further be separated into four NRPS independent synthetase (NIS)type and six non-ribosomal peptide synthetase (NRPS)-type siderophores (46,47).Based on the presence of one or more iucA/iucC domains, the four NIS-type BGCs matched closely to petrobactin (A.macleodii MAG 10), vibrioferrin (Marinobacteri sp.MAG 23; Limnobacter sp.MAG 11), and rhizoferrin (Rhodospirillales MAG 08) biosynthesis pathways (Fig. 2).From the six different NRPS-type siderophores, only two matched to a known siderophore BGC, namely that of the membrane-bound amphibactin (100%) (Alcanivorax sp.MAG 47) and one resembling the BGC of the siderophores agrobactin (93%) or enterobactin (83%) (Roseibium sp.MAG 18) (Fig. 2).In addition, our results indicate the potential of several novel NRPS-type siderophore biosynthesis pathways (Fig. S3).NRPS-type siderophore BGCs are not as well characterized as NIS-type sidero phores BGCs and can be difficult to distinguish from other secondary metabolites such as toxins and antibiotics (48).Analysis of the four NRPS-type siderophore BGCs using AntiSMASH 7.0 showed a putative siderophore receptor (SMCOG1082) of a TonBdependent transporter (TBDT) indicating that these NRPS BGCs are involved in sidero phore biosynthesis.While these four NRPS BGCs could not be linked to any known siderophore BGCs, several unknown metallophores have previously been identified and associated with Trichodesmium colonies and we speculate that some may be linked to these uncharacterized NRPS BGCs (25).Culture-based research will likely be required to link these pathways to a coinciding siderophore molecule.
Our results indicate that the Trichodesmium consortium in the Red Sea may act together with several photolabile siderophore-producing bacteria to mine Fe from dust.The re-occurring consortium members Marinobacter sp.(MAG 23), Alcanivorax sp.(MAG 47), and A. macleodii (MAG 10) are all able to synthesize siderophores (Fig. 2) whose citrate-moiety results in their photolability (49).Trichodesmium resides in the natural illumination of surface waters, where sunlight can reductively disassociate Fe from these siderophore complexes and provide a flux of available dissolved and inorganic Fe (50,51).This dissolved inorganic Fe can be taken up by Fe +3 and/or Fe +2 transport mecha nisms shown to be present in most consortium members (Fig. 2).T. thiebautii MAG 52 contains a Fe +3 and Fe +2 uptake mechanism but only contains a partial TonB system with  S4 and Materials and Methods for more details).Genes of interest, with a peptide in our proteomic data set are highlighted in black, indicating the protein was present at the time of sampling (see Table S3 for more details).(a) T. thiebautii MAG 52 does not contain a wide diversity of Fe-uptake genes, and the majority of associated bacteria MAGs (Continued on next page) no known TBDT or siderophore receptors (Table S4) (31,52,53) suggesting that these photolabile siderophores can be made bioavailable to Trichodesmium upon reductive disassociation by sunlight (29).If proven, these photolabile siderophores act as a "common good" within the Trichodesmium consortia, where only a few members carrying the trait are needed to benefit the entire consortium (54).This contrasts with the uptake mode of photostable siderophores, such as desferrioxamine-B (DFOB), which require a specialized TBDT (55).Similarly, amphibactin is a membrane-bound sidero phore (56), which prevents its diffusion in the environment and subsequently, its ability to act as a public good to the Trichodesmium consortium.A recent gene-knockout study in an A. macleodii strain verified the ability of petrobactin to enhance the bioavailability of particulate Fe (28).Collectively, these findings support the idea that Trichodesmium can interact with several consortium members that produce photolabile siderophores to acquire Fe from dust.
The detected siderophore BGCs were identified in ubiquitous and copiotrophic bacteria typically found in association with particles and algae (17,28), including M. salarius (MAG 23), Alcanivorax venustensis (MAG 47), and A. macleodii (MAG 10) (Fig. 2).Siderophore production within the Trichodesmium consortium therefore appears to be linked to a lifestyle associated with a rapidly changing environment rich in N and C, where regulating Fe bioavailability can provide a competitive advantage.An A. macleodii strain, previously isolated from T. erythraeum IMS101 cultures, was shown to benefit from the demise of Trichodesmium (43, 57), possibly suggesting a more complex interactive relationship between Trichodesmium and siderophore-producing bacteria.In line with particle and algae associations, siderophore production has also been associated with other ecological functions including heavy metal detoxification, oxidative stress response, and intra-specific communication (58) (Fig. S4; Table S4).The former two benefits from siderophore production could be relevant to investigate further considering Trichodesmium's ability to center dust, particularly in the presence or absence of sunlight.Although no siderophore BGCs were present in our protein database, the presence of a few, yet reoccurring siderophore-producing MAGs augments previous measurements of siderophore production within the consortium (22,25,26) and reveals additional layers of Trichodesmium colonies' intriguing ability to sequester Fe from dust.

The Trichodesmium consortium is heterogeneous in genes related to the uptake and use of inorganic and organic phosphorous
We predicted that the majority of bacteria associated with Trichodesmium has the ability to metabolize phosphite or phosphonate.This can offer a key competitive advantage among consortium members in a P-limited environment (24,59) including the Gulf of Aqaba in the Red Sea (60).Within a low-P environment, dissolved inorganic P is scarce, and bacteria must scavenge phosphate from dissolved organic P to meet their P-requirements (61).Trichodesmium is highly efficient at scavenging and utilizing organic-P through the production of alkaline phosphatase (AP), and the uptake of phosphonate and phosphite (62).Multiple studies have shown that Trichodesmium colonies in the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans are hotspots for the reduced P-cycling of phosphite or phosphonate (24,59) suggesting that the majority of consortium members can process reduced-P.Confirming past studies (24, 63), T. thiebautii MAG 52 encodes a FIG 2 (Continued) contain an uptake receptor for organic Fe:complexes (heme, citrate, and siderophores).Several MAGs of associated bacteria contained non-ribosomal peptide synthetase (NRPS) or NRPS independent synthetase (NIS)-type siderophore biosynthetic gene cluster (BGC) pathways.(b) Siderophore BGCs of known NIS-type siderophore BGCs can be clustered according to the presence of one or multiple iucA/iucC domains which enable one to target the closest siderophore BGC match (46).Using this method, we were able to link these pathways to the synthesis of the photolabile (i) petrobactin, (ii) vibrioferrin, and (iii) rhizoferrin.
(c) Siderophore BGCs of known NRPS siderophores.Using antiSMASH 7.0, which aligns BGCs to known siderophores within the MIBiG database, we were able to link two of the six putative siderophore NRPS-type pathways to (i) the membrane-bound amphibactin and (ii) agrobactin/enterobactin (see Fig. S3 for more details on the siderophore biosynthesis pathways).set of functions to transport and metabolize diverse forms of P (Fig. 3).This includes the presence of a high-affinity phosphate transporter (pstSCAB) and a phosphonate/phos phite transporter (phnCDE/pxtABC).In addition to these transport systems, genes related to the utilization and metabolism of organic-P included alkaline phosphatase (AP) (phoA, phoX), and a carbon-phosphorus (C-P) lyase (phnGHIJKLM) which hydrolyses a broad range of phosphonate compounds that can then be taken up.T. thiebautii MAG 52 also encodes phosphite dehydrogenase (ptxD) which catalyzes the oxidation of phosphite to phosphate.The presence of three phnD homologs (K02044), phoX (K07093), and pstB (K02036), within the proteome, suggests Trichodesmium was taking up phosphate, phosphonate, and hydrolyzing phosphoester compounds to meet its P-demand (Table S3).Several of these proteins are regulated by P (63), and their detection in the proteome is consistent with intense competition for P in the low P Red Sea.
As KEGG annotation cannot accurately distinguish between a phosphonate (phnCDE) and a phosphite (pxtABC) transporter (64,65), the presence of adjacent P-metabolism genes can further indicate the P-source linked to it (63).Specifically, the presence of phosphite dehydrogenase (ptxD) points to phosphite metabolism while a broad specificity C-P lyase (phnGHIJKLM) or the substrate-specific hydrolysis of phosphonopyr uvate (palA) or 2-aminoethylphosphonate (2-AEP) to acetaldehyde (phnWX), acetate (phnWYA), or glycine (phnY'Z) can point to the metabolism of phosphonate (66,67).Our results showed that the presence of a phnCDE/ptxABC uptake system was specific  S4 and Materials and Methods for more details).Genes of interest, with a peptide in our proteomic data set are highlighted in black, indicating the protein was present at the time of sampling (see Table S3 for more details).Trichodesmium is known to be highly competitive for P, as exemplified by the multitude of (a) P-uptake systems for phosphate (pstS and pstB), phosphonate (phnCDE), and phosphonate/phosphite (phnCDE/ptxABC).(b) Within the Trichodesmium consortium, the ability to metabolize a range of phosphonate compounds using a broad specificity C-P lyase (phnGHIJKLM) is more prominent than the substrate-specific hydrolysis of 2-aminoethylphospho nate (2-AEP; phnWXYZA) or phosphonopyruvate (palA) and phosphite metabolism (ptxD).
to certain taxonomic orders including Pseudomonadales, Rhodospirillales, Rhodobacter ales, Caulobacterales, and Rhizobiales (Fig. 3).These taxonomic orders may therefore have a competitive advantage over members that lack them, particularly when faced with low P conditions.Of these 25 MAGs, 16 could be linked to phosphonate metabolism through the presence of a broad specificity C-P lyase.By contrast, only four MAGs spread across different taxonomic orders appeared to be able to process phosphite due to the presence of phosphite dehydrogenase (Fig. 3).Seven MAGs contained genes associated with the substrate-specific hydrolysis of 2-AEP but pathways were not complete, making it difficult to conclude (Fig. 3).While C-P lyases were not found within our proteomic data set, the presence of broad specificity C-P lyase (phnGHIJKLM) appears to be the most prevalent strategy for phosphonate utilization among consortium members, in comparison to 2-AEP hydrolysis (Table S3).This finding is in contrast to a meta-analysis of marine metagenomes where the most common phosphonate degradation strategy within the water column was the substrate-specific hydrolysis of 2-AEP (68).While 2-AEP is the most abundant phosphonate source in the marine environment (69), the prevalence of broad specificity C-P lyases may reflect the relevance of different phosphonate compounds to bacteria residing in Trichodesmium colonies.

The Trichodesmium consortium contains genes related to multiple N-meta bolic pathways including denitrification
We explored the presence of multiple N-metabolic pathways predicted to influence the biogeochemical contribution of Trichodesmium regarding N 2 fixation.In Trichodesmium colonies sampled from the Red Sea, N 2 fixation appears to be uniquely attributed to T. thiebautii MAG 52 (Fig. 4).This contrasts with a previous study that observed nifH genes in both Trichodesmium and their associated bacteria (18).In our study, only T. thiebautii (MAG 52) contained the full N 2 fixation pathway (nifDKHEB: M00175) and therefore the ability to fix N 2 within the colony.Similar to other studies in Trichodesmium (18,23,70), the consortium contained several genes linked to the N-transformation pathways of assimilatory nitrate reduction to ammonium (ANRA), dissimilatory nitrate reduction to ammonium (DNRA), and denitrification (Fig. 4).In the absence of ammonium, the ANRA pathway enables marine bacteria to utilize nitrate as an alternative nitrogen source (71) while denitrification and DNRA are anaerobic respiratory pathways (72).The latter two pathways are N-loss and N-recycling processes, respectively, and are predicted to enable the residing community to conserve and fully utilize N 2 fixed by Trichodesmium (18).Collectively, the N-metabolic pathways present in the consortium can alter the net contribution of Trichodesmium colonies to local N-cycling dynamics (21,72,73).Nitrate and nitrite reductases are present in all three pathways and the same genes can be associated with multiple pathways in different bacteria (71,74,75).Therefore, in addition to KEGG annotations, we linked genes to N-metabolic pathways based on the presence of additional marker genes.Our classification of genes hereby contrasts with previous studies in Trichodesmium which relied solely on KEGG annotation (18,23,70).In this manner, 19 MAGs containing the nitrite reductase genes nirBD could instead be coupled to the nitrate reductase nasA, a marker gene for ANRA (71,74,75).Contrastingly, previous studies linked the presence of nirBD to DNRA within the Trichodesmium consortium (18,23,70).In our data set, only one MAG could be associated with DNRA using the marker gene nrfAH (76).Our functional assignment of genes to N-metabolic pathways hereby remains putative and to confirm whether these reductases are correctly associated with DNRA or ANRA pathways will require a thorough experi mental investigation.
Denitrification appeared to be modular within the Trichodesmium consortium as different genomes collectively completed the entire pathway (Fig. 4 and 6).Three MAGs contained nosZ, the terminal step in denitrification, including Roseibium aggregatum (MAG 17), formerly known as Labrenzia sp., which was previously identified as an important denitrifying bacteria associated with Trichodesmium colonies in the Red Sea (44).While the presence of modularity in denitrification pathways itself is not uncommon (77)(78)(79), finding its presence within the Trichodesmium consortium indicates the spatial role Trichodesmium plays in providing a platform where each step can be performed by a distinct subset of the microbial consortium.The presence of either denitrification or DNRA pathways is rare in the oxic surface ocean, as these processes require anoxic and suboxic conditions (80).In the surface waters, suboxic and anoxic micro-environments were detected in marine aggregates, such as marine snow and fecal pellets, where enhanced microbial respiration results in the consumption of O 2 and the formation of anoxic microzones (81,82).Trichodesmium colonies may represent an additional environment where such processes can take place within the surface waters of the ocean (44) (83).Our proteomic data set indicated Trichodesmium MAG 52 was actively fixing nitrogen (K02588, K02591, and K02586), taking up ammonium (K03320), and metaboliz ing nitrogen via a glutamine synthetase (K01915).Peptides also matched to a glutamine synthetase in consortium members (K01915 and K00982).Peptides, however, did not match any sequences related to ANRA, DNRA, or denitrification pathways (Table S3).While evidence suggests DNRA and denitrification processes are taking place within natural Trichodesmium colonies (44,83), measured O 2 concentrations in Trichodesmium colonies are often well above zero even during darkness (21) and it is still not entirely clear when and where these N-cycling pathways are actively taking place (21,73).It is suggested that the rapid O 2 consumption by residing bacteria and the presence of dust (84) could support the formation of suboxic microenvironments in Trichodesmium colonies but will require more studies to resolve (73,84).Altogether, more work is required to fully elucidate the functional potential of consortium members and the exact  S4 and Materials and Methods for more details).Genes of interest, with a peptide in our proteomic data set are highlighted in black, indicating the protein was present at the time of sampling (see Table S3 for more details).T. thiebautii MAG 52 is the only MAG with an N 2 fixation pathway.When a gene is not considered a marker gene for a specific pathway (and the assignment is hereby putative), the pathway is marked with a blue asterisk.The majority of MAGs contained a putative ANRA pathway to take up nitrate from the environment, while others contained several steps within the pathways of denitrification.Denitrification appears to be modular, where several MAGs completed the denitrification pathway but none contained genes for its entirety.
tradeoffs between interactive members of the Trichodesmium consortium regarding Nmetabolism.

Trichodesmium consortium members are auxotrophic for vitamins B 1 , B 7 , and B 12
The presence of vitamin auxotrophy within the consortium indicates a dependency of members on Trichodesmium for vitamin provision.Our results show that while Trichodes mium MAG 52 encodes the biosynthesis pathways for cobalamin (B 12 ), biotin (B 7 ), and thiamin (B 1 ), the majority of associated bacteria (49 of the 52 MAGs) lack a biosynthesis pathway for at least one of these vitamins (Fig. 5).Bacteroidetes, Sphingomonadales, and Enterobacterales species, including A.s macleodii (MAG 10), were all auxotrophic for vitamin B 12 .MAGs from the order Rhodospirillales lacked the ability to synthesize vitamin B 7 , whereas Rhizobiales and Rhodobacterales appeared to be auxotrophic for both vitamin B 1 and B 7 .Only Pseudoalteromonas encoded all three biosynthesis pathways, including the re-occurring taxa Alcanivorax sp.(MAG 47) and M. salarius (MAG 23).These consortium members may also contribute to the synthesis and provision of vitamins B 1 , B 7 , and B 12 to their auxotrophic counterparts (Fig. 5) but, based on overall relative abundance, Trichodesmium represents the most likely source of B vitamins.Previous studies have shown that Trichodesmium can synthesize and secrete the vitamin cobalamin (B 12 ) to the environment (23).Vitamin uptake genes were not found in our proteomic data set, and only one peptide matched the biosynthesis pathway of vitamin B 12 (K19221) in Trichodesmium (Table S3).Nonetheless, the production and secretion of different vitamins by Trichodesmium may be a key determinant of community composi tion, stimulating vitamin-based interactions among auxotrophic consortium members.

Nutrient cycling in Trichodesmium consortia is likely underpinned by interactions with copiotrophic bacteria
A literature study of the bacterial lineages present within the Trichodesmium consortium describes these taxonomic orders as typical primary colonizers of marine surfaces such as algae or sinking particles (39)(40)(41).Strains of Alteromonas, Marinobacter, and Pseudo monas often co-occur with phototrophs such as cyanobacteria as well as oil spills, likely as a result of their ability to degrade hydrocarbons and aromatic compounds  S4 and Materials and Methods for more details).Genes of interest, with a peptide in our proteomic data set are highlighted in black, indicating the protein was present at the time of sampling (see Table S3 for more details).
Trichodesmium contains the biosynthesis pathways for all three vitamins, but the vast majority of associated bacteria were auxotrophic for one or more vitamins.
These results suggest that the associated bacteria rely on Trichodesmium to obtain their vitamin requirements.

Research Article mSystems
November/December 2023 Volume 8 Issue 6 10.1128/msystems.00742-2311 (42,85).While the prevalence of these copiotrophic lifestyles within the Trichodesmium consortium has been observed in previous studies (17,19), it is still unclear whether their association with Trichodesmium is specific or reflective of a more general interaction between algae or particle associations.Copiotrophy is a widely encompassing term, but it generally concerns opportunistic bacteria with a versatile metabolic capacity to use a wide range of substrates, acting as important remineralizers by rapidly responding toward areas enriched in organic matter (86,87).It is, therefore, possible to consider the majority of the consortium as active remineralizers of the C, N, P, Fe, and vitamins Trichodesmium provides.Viewing Trichodesmium as a hotspot for nutrients is supported by our proteomic samples where the most abundant peptides attributed to T. thiebautii MAG 52 were related to photosynthetic (K05376, K05377, and K02284) and diazotrophic machinery (K03839, K02588, and K02591) indicating that the processes of N and C fixation were actively taking place at the time of collection (Table S3).Meanwhile, T. thiebautii MAG 52 appeared to be limited in Fe and P and actively taking up their various forms through different transporter systems.Due to low peptide biomass, it was more difficult to make conclusions about the protein hits associated with consortium members but included the uptake of nutrients such as amino acids (K09969 and K01999), phosphate (K02040), Fe (K02014), sugars (K02055, K02027, and K10552), and peptides (K02035 and K02032) (Table S3).
In general, copiotrophic bacteria are characterized by the presence of several bacterial-interactive traits (88), indicating the potential of the Trichodesmium consortium to form complex interactive networks.The prevalence of copiotrophic bacteria can be supported by the presence of several bacterial-interactive and particle-associated traits (88, 89) (Fig. S4; Table S4), and a previous study has shown gene expression among Trichodesmium and associated bacteria appears to be coordinated (23).Although speculative, this could be supported by the presence of several proteins involved in interactive traits such as pilus formation (K02658, K02662, and K02669) and secretion systems (K11003; K03072; K03070, K03110, K03073; K03217) within T. thiebautii MAG 52 (Table S3).In this study, 15 associated bacteria MAGs, including re-occurring members from the order Rhodobacterales, contained an acyl homoserine lactone (AHL) biosyn thesis pathway (Fig. S4a).Previous studies have shown that the presence of AHLs can modulate N 2 fixation rates (20) and increase alkaline phosphatase (AP) activity within Trichodesmium colonies (90).In particular, consortium members belonging to the phylum Proteobacteria (e.g., Rhodobacterales) are predicted to coordinate their behavior through AHLs (15,(90)(91)(92).While our proteomic data set did not indicate their expression at the time of sampling, our results do highlight several potential candidates to further investigate.An AHL biosynthesis pathway was also found in T. thiebautii MAG 52.The presence of AHL-homologs had previously been reported for T. erythraeum IMS101; however, it lacked an AHL-binding residue suggesting that it is likely not functional (90).Whether T. thiebautii MAG 52 contains a functional AHL and can coordinate its gene expression through AHLs is beyond the scope of this analysis.Lastly, the functional association of poorly studied bacterial clades, in particular Balneolales (Table S1), remained more elusive and indicated that we still lack a clear understanding of these bacteria and their interactive role within the Trichodesmium consortium.Further investigations will be required to untangle the dynamics of both general and specific interactions taking place between members of the Trichodesmium consortium.

Conclusions and future perspectives
Our results characterize Trichodesmium colonies as a hotspot for C, N, P, Fe, and vitamins in the residing community (Fig. 6).Colonies harbored a flexible assemblage of bacteria, and several core-community members, mostly characterized by a copiotrophic lifestyle adept at processing the nutrients Trichodesmium can provide.Vitamins are likely a major component influencing community structure as the majority of bacteria were auxotro phic for one or more vitamins and likely relied on Trichodesmium for their synthesis.A key beneficial trait Trichodesmium can acquire from its residing community is related to and N 2 fixation in Trichodesmium (associated bacteria can also produce AP but is not depicted here-see Fig. 3).(d) Trichodesmium can produce the vitamins cobalamin (B 12 ), thiamin (B 1 ), and biotin (B 7 ).Different subsets of MAGs were auxotrophic for different vitamins, defined for each MAG lacking a biosynthesis pathway but containing an uptake pathway for one or more of these vitamins.Very few MAGs are capable of synthesizing all three vitamins and consortium members likely exhibit an interdependent relationship for these vitamins (associated bacteria can also produce vitamins but is not depicted here-see Fig. 5).
(e) Reduced P-metabolism.Trichodesmium colonies have been shown to take up and utilize phosphonate and phosphite in a low-P environment and MAGs containing these pathways may have a competitive advantage over members that lack them.the acquisition of iron from particles through the production of siderophores.Trichodes mium harbored several bacteria that can secrete photolabile siderophores, supporting the idea that Trichodesmium can meet their high Fe requirements through a collaborative effort to obtain Fe from dust particles collected within the colony.Whether the produc tion of siderophores can further benefit the colony through processes such as heavy metal detoxification and the reduction of oxidative stress may be intriguing to further investigate.To determine the conditions in which such processes may benefit the colony could be explored by moving away from bulk measurements and toward the application of single-colony approaches.
The complex Trichodesmium consortium represents an intriguing system to study the intricate interactions taking place within a particle-rich system (Fig. 6), asking how such processes can impact the C, N, P, and Fe cycles in a rapidly changing ocean where shifts in the microbial community composition and their abundance are expected to occur (35,93).Understanding the factors that drive its community structure across temporal and spatial scales remains an important avenue to continue to explore through a combina tion of transcriptomic and proteomic techniques.The observed redundancy of multiple traits involved in nutrient cycling among Trichodesmium consortium members, including the production of siderophores, indicates the flexibility of a colony while maintaining such traits within the community.Altogether, our results highlight the presence of a dynamic consortium where functional traits are well conserved within the Trichodesmium consortium, underpinning the resilience of the colony within an ever-changing ocean.

Trichodesmium metagenomic sampling and extraction
Trichodesmium puff colonies, 1-2 mm in size, were hand-picked during the spring bloom (6th May 2019) and separated into three samples for metagenomics (~100-200 colonies each) using a 100 µm phytoplankton net at 20 m depth in the Gulf of Aqaba (Eilat, Israel) (29.56°N, 34.95°E).Colonies were washed three times, by gently picking colonies with a pipette and placing them in new petri dishes with fresh 0.2 µm filtered and sterilized seawater, before being filtered on a 0.2-µm, 45-mm polycarbonate (PC) filter and vacuum filtered using a peristaltic vacuum pump.Free-living bacteria are hereby removed while bacteria associated with the Trichodesmium colony, both loosely and strongly, are captured and sequenced.This method is also similar to that of other studies (18,19,23).Filters were flash-frozen in liquid N 2 and kept at −80°C.DNA was extracted from the three Trichodesmium samples using the DNeasy Plant Pro Kit (Qiagen), with a minor modification to the lysis procedure.The kit-provided tissue disruption tubes were not used.Rather, ∼250 µL zirconia/silica beads (0.5 mm) were added to each sample tube before the addition of Solution CD1, and samples were vortexed for 5 min.The resulting lysate was processed as per the remainder of the manufacturer's instructions.DNA was quantified fluorometrically on a Qubit 4.0 Fluorometer (Thermo Fisher Scientific, USA).From the three samples, metagenomic libraries were prepared and sequenced with 0.7 billion reads 2 × 151 bp reads on Illumina NovaSeq S4 at the DOE Joint Genome Institute (California, USA).This study can be found under JGI Gold Study ID number Gs0149370 (https://gold.jgi.doe.gov/study?id=Gs0149370).

Metagenomic raw read assembly and binning
Sequences were analyzed from this study and compared to previously pub lished metagenomic studies of Trichodesmium colonies isolated from the Red Sea (PRJNA804487) (38) from the Pacific (PRJNA435427) (23) (PRJNA358796) (18) and the Atlantic (PRJNA330990) (19) Oceans.All raw sequences, from all data sets, were analyzed using the same protocol described below.The analysis can also be found in the following github depository: https://github.com/cocokoedooder/Trichodesmium_consortiumMetagenomes were assembled, binned, and quantified using the ATLAS (v2) pipeline (94).Briefly, raw sequences underwent quality control through the BBTools suite (95,96) and were assembled using metaSPAdes (97) (k-mer lengths: 21, 33, 55, 99, and 121 bp).For each sample, MAGs were binned automatically using MetaBAT 2 (98), MaxBin 2.0 (99), and VAMB (100).Using DAS Tool (101) and dRep (102) for quality filtering, a final set of 52 non-redundant MAGs was obtained based on a 97.5% average nucleotide identity (ANI) and 75% completeness cutoff.The 97.5% ANI cutoff was chosen to account for the possibility of multiple Trichodesmium sub-species that may be present in our samples, as had been shown in a previous study (38).The completeness and redundancy of each bin were subsequently assessed using CheckM2 v0.1.2(103).MAGs were considered of high quality if they reached 90% completeness and 10% redundancy and were highlighted throughout our results and figures (37).Genes were predicted using Prodigal (104).In this study, the final set of 52 MAGs did not undergo manual inspection for further MAG refinement.The coverage of each MAG was quantified across each sample by mapping reads back to each MAG.We refer to the MAGs from this study as MAG XX, bacterial MAGs from a previous Red Sea study as R-XX (38), and bacterial MAGs from other metagenomic studies from the Pacific and Atlantic Oceans (18,19,23) as T-XX.

Phylogenetic diversity
MAGs were taxonomically characterized using the genome taxonomy database tool kit GTDB-tk v2.1.1 (105).The taxonomic names of MAGs were classified according to the GTDB taxonomy database of bacterial genomes (version r207.0)where phylogeny is inferred using a concatenated alignment of 120 ubiquitous single-copy proteins ("bac120") (Tables S1 and S2).The GTDB taxonomic match for each MAG was sub sequently linked to its corresponding NCBI taxonomy (https://gtdb.ecogenomic.org/).GTDB taxonomy was preferably used throughout the analysis, but to simplify compari sons within the literature, we used the larger NCBI taxonomic order Rhodospirillales which encompasses the smaller GTDB taxonomic groups of Kiloniellales and Thalassoba culaceae.

Functional diversity
The amino-acid sequence for each MAG was annotated using HMMscan and GhostKoala under default parameters (50% identity cutoff), utilizing the PFAM and KEGG databases, respectively (110,111).Secondary metabolites (e.g., biosynthesis of siderophores and AHLs) were screened for each MAG using AntiSMASH 7.0.In certain cases, the Rapid Annotation using Subsystem Technology (RAST) server was used to annotate amino-acid sequences using the collection of protein families, FIGfams (112,113).In addition, each MAG was assessed using METABOLIC (v4.0) which lists the presence of interactive KEGG modules for each MAG (114).Based on these different annotation formats, we inspected each MAG for the presence of functional traits.For each functional pathway or gene, the annotation method, the coinciding KEGG and PFAM ID number, and the number of hits in each MAG can be found in Table S4.Pathways consisting of multiple genes were considered present using a general cutoff of 50% completeness followed by a manual inspection of each pathway for each MAG.For transporter genes, marker genes of substrate-specific receptors were a determining factor in marking their presence or absence in a genome.The presence and absence of different traits for each MAG were displayed using the Interactive Tree of Life (iTOL) visualization tool (115).

Iron metabolism
To explore the relationship between Trichodesmium and its associated bacteria for the bioavailability of Fe from dust, we searched MAGs for the KEGG IDs of multiple Fe-uptake pathways.Fe-uptake receptors were separated according to abiotic Fe +2 (feoB: K04759), Fe +3 (afuA: K02012), and organic Fe uptake which is further separated into Fe-heme (hemR: K16087), Fe-citrate (fecA: K16091), and Fe-siderophores (fevS: K02016).The presence of a Fe:siderophore receptor K02016 should be taken cautiously as its KEGG annotation does not clearly distinguish between siderophores or vitamin B 12 as a substrate.
Siderophore biosynthesis pathways within MAGs were identified using a conservative approach that required a combination of both KEGG and HMM annotation for each MAG and the use of AntiSMASH 7.0 and FeGenie tools (116) (Fig. S3).Pathways were separately analyzed for both NRPS-type and NIS-type biosynthesis pathways.NIS-type siderophore biosynthesis pathways are more easily identifiable than the two, and we searched for the presence of the Fe-uptake chelate iucA/iucC domain (PF04183).NIS genes were clustered into different types using known NIS biosynthesis genes as defined and described by Carroll and Moore (46).Briefly, genes were aligned using the online Multiple Alignment Fast Fourier Transformation (MAFFT v7.490; L-INS-i) software (117).A phylogenetic tree was constructed from this alignment using IQtree2 (v2.1.3).The resulting best-fit substitution model Q.pfam + F + R4 was selected using Bayesian information criteria (BIC).Branches were assigned using SH-aLRT and UFBoot branch support values were estimated from 1,000 bootstraps.The resulting consensus tree was visualized using FigTree (v1.4.4).
The identification of NRPS-type siderophore biosynthesis pathways required FeGenie, which utilizes biosynthetic pHMMs, and was used to highlight putative NRPS-type siderophores that were further inspected using AntiSMASH 7.0.In AntiSMASH 7.0, MAGs containing an NRPS pathway coupled with a siderophore receptor (SMCOG1082) of a TBDT within the gene cluster were marked as putative NRPS siderophore producers.These pathways were further compared to known NRPS siderophore pathways using the MiBIG database (118) and the KEGG pathway map for NRPS-type siderophores BGC map01053.

Vitamin B 1 , B 7 , and B 12 biosynthesis and uptake
We assume that a bacterial strain is auxotrophic for thiamin (B 1 ), biotin (B 7 ), or coba lamin (B 12 ) if their coinciding genome lacks a vitamin B 12 biosynthesis pathway but contains a transporter for its uptake.For each vitamin, we searched MAGs for the KEGG IDs and determined the presence of a vitamin biosynthesis pathway using KEGG modules.The presence of a B 1 biosynthesis pathway (M00127) was determined by the presence of thiCDEGL (K00946; K00788; K03149; K00941; K03147).A vitamin B 1 uptake system was considered present if the marker gene thiB (K02064), encoding a vitamin B 1 binding subunit of an ABC transporter, was present (119) alongside a coinciding transporter system thiPQ (K02063, K02062).The presence of a vitamin B 7 biosynthesis pathway (M00123) was determined by the presence of bioABDF (K01012; K01935; K00833; K00652).A vitamin B 7 uptake system was present if the marker gene bioY (K03523), encoding a vitamin B 7 binding subunit of an ABC transporter (120), was present alongside a coinciding transporter system bioNM (K16783 and K16784) or efcTA 1 A 2 (K16785, K16786, and K16787).Finally, the presence of a vitamin B 12 biosyn thesis pathway was determined by the KEGG ID module M00122.A putative vitamin B 12 uptake system was considered present when the marker gene btuB (K16092) was observed (121,122), which encodes a vitamin B 12 receptor for a TBDT.In addition, we queried the presence of two btuF genes (K06858 and K25034) that encode a vitamin B 12 binding subunit of the ABC transporter btuCDF (K06074 and K06073).

Nitrogen metabolism
N-metabolism pathways of MAGs were compiled from a selected set of KEGG ID numbers.MAGs were queried for the presence of genes related to N 2 fixation, dissimila tory nitrate reduction to ammonium (DNRA), assimilatory nitrate reduction to ammo nium (ANRA), and denitrification.The ability to fix N 2 was determined through the presence of nifHKD (M00175: K02588, K02591, K02586, and K00531).Denitrification, ANRA, and DNRA can be separated into several steps.All three pathways involve a nitrate reductase which reduces nitrate to nitrite (napAB: K02567, K02568; narGHI: K00370-K00374; narB: K00367).In ANRA and DNRA, the nitrite is further reduced to ammonia by a nitrite reductase (nrfAH: K15876 and K03385, nirA: K00366; nirBD: K00362 and K00363).In denitrification, the nitrite is further reduced to nitric oxide (nirS: K15864; nirK: K00368), nitric oxide to nitrous oxide (norBC: K04561 and K02305), and nitrous oxide to N 2 (nosZ: K00376).Classification of genes in KEGG (map00910) is largely based on Escherichia coli, which appears to form the exception rather than the rule when linking nitrate reductases to different N-metabolic pathways (71,(123)(124)(125).We therefore performed an extensive literature search of marker genes to putatively screen and assign genes in each genome to their respective pathways.In this manner, the genes norB and nirA present in Trichodesmium MAG 52 could be associated with nitrate assimilation (126).Similarly, the genes nasA and nirBD in 21 MAGs were associated with the ANRA pathway (71) rather than DNRA as had been done in previous studies (18,23,70).The nitrite reductases nirK or nirS acted as marker genes for the presence of denitrification pathways (124) and enabled us to putatively link the nitrate reductases narGHI and napAB to this pathway instead of DNRA in several genomes (10 MAGs) (125).Similarly, nrfA acted as a diagnostic for the presence of DNRA within a genome (76), with only one MAG associated with this pathway.

Bacterial and particle interaction traits
Known traits that are indicative of putative bacterial interactions were previously summarized and identified by Zoccarato et al. for marine bacterial genomes (88).In addition to siderophore biosynthesis and vitamin B 1 , B 7 , and B 12 biosynthesis (see previously), MAGs were probed for the presence of AHL biosynthesis genes using AntiSMASH 7.0.All AHLs, including the AHL present in Trichodesmium, were homologs of luxR and could further be identified by the presence of the pfam domain PF00765.The presence of auxin efflux genes was determined according to RAST annotation.MAGs were screened for KEGG ID numbers for the presence of the quorum sensing regulation gene luxR (K07782) and bjaR1 (K18098), secretion systems (KEGG map03070), and motility and adhesion genes (KEGG map02020) (Table S4).Traits involved in particle interaction were previously described and summarized by Debeljak et al. (89).In addition to Fe-uptake and siderophore biosynthesis pathways, MAGs were screened for KEGG ID numbers involved in metal-response, metal-efflux, and metal-storage pathways (Table S4).

Trichodesmium proteomic sampling and extraction
In parallel to the metagenomic sampling, 20 puff colonies were picked, in triplicate, for proteomic analysis at the Environmental Molecular Sciences Laboratory (EMSL) at Pacific Northwest National Laboratory according to standardized protocols.Colonies were washed three times with filtered seawater, as described above.Samples were centrifuged, and the resulting pellet was diluted in 200 µL 8 M urea and transferred to 2 mL pre-filled micro-organism lysing mix glass bead tubes and bead beat in a Bead Ruptor Elite Bead Mill Homogenizer (OMNI International, Kennesaw, GA) at a speed of 5.5 for 45 s.After bead beating, the lysate was transferred to a new 4 mL tube and immediately placed in an ice block and spun at 1,000× g for 10 min at 4°C.An amount of 200 µL of the lysed samples was transferred into 2 mL centrifuge tubes.A bicinchoninic acid (BCA) assay (Thermo Scientific, MA, USA) was performed to determine protein concentration.Following the assay, 10 mM dithiothreitol was added to the samples and incubated at 60°C for 30 min with constant shaking at 800 rpm.Samples were diluted eightfold for preparation for digestion with 100 mM NH 4 HCO 3 , 1 mM CaCl 2 , and sequencing grade trypsin (Promega, WI) was added to all protein samples at a 1:50 (wt/wt) trypsin-to-protein ratio for 3 h at 37 ˚C, 450 rpm.Digested samples were desalted using a 4-probe-positive pressure Gilson GX-274 ASPEC system (Gilson Inc., WI) with Discovery C18 50 mg/1 mL solid phase extraction tubes (Supelco, MO), using the following protocol: 3 mL of methanol was added for conditioning followed by 3 mL of 0.1% trifluoroacetic acid (TFA) in H 2 O.The samples were then loaded onto each column followed by 4 mL of 95:5: H 2 O:ACN, 0.1% TFA.Samples were eluted with 1 mL 80:20 ACN:H 2 O, 0.1% TFA.The samples were concentrated using a speed vac and a final BCA was performed to determine the peptide concentration and samples were fractionated into 12 fractions for LC-MS/MS analysis.
MS analysis was performed using a Q-Exactive Plus mass spectrometer (Thermo Scientific) outfitted with a homemade nano-electrospray ionization interface.Electrospray emitters used 150 µm o.d.× 20 µm i.d.chemically etched fused silica (124).The ion transfer tube temperature and spray voltage were 300°C and 2.2 kV, respectively.The data were collected for 120 min following a 10-min delay after completion of sample trapping and start of gradient.FT-MS spectra were acquired from 300 to 1,800 m/z at a resolution of 70 k (AGC target 3e6) and the top 12 FT-HCD-MS/MS spectra were acquired in data-dependent mode with an isolation window of 1.5 m/z at a resolution of 17.5 k (AGC target 1e5) using a normalized collision energy of 30, dynamic exclusion time of 30 s, and detected charge state of an ion 2 or higher.The resulting proteomic samples from this study were deposited in MassIVE (PXD040628).

Proteomic analysis
Peptide matching was performed using MSGF+ software (127) against the amino-acid sequences obtained from the matching metagenome data set through PROKKA (128) using the ATLAS pipeline (v2) (94) resulting in 5,292 unique clean peptide sequences that could subsequently be mapped to 1,253 different protein sequences.MSGF+ was used in target/decoy mode with 20 ppm parent ion tolerance, partial tryptic rule, and M-oxida tion (+15.9949) as a dynamic modification.Best matches from the MSGF+ searches were filtered at a 1% false discovery rate based on the target/decoy model and this final set of peptides was used in the consequent quantitative analysis.We obtained a total of 14,074 spectral counts without consideration of peptide specificity for proteins and MAGs, to encompass the widest range of putative protein matches.91.6% of peptides mapped to a unique protein sequence and 92.7% of peptides were found in a single MAG, indicating that for most peptides there was little ambiguity regarding its protein and taxonomic match.Peptide sequences could be linked to 81 proteins that were associated with 65 genes of interest.Their sequences were manually checked for MAG and protein specificity to assess the reliability of these counts.Spectral count normalization was performed using the normalized spectral abundance factor (129).Briefly, counts were divided by the matching peptide length and their relative abundance was calculated from the total number of spectral hits per sample (Table S3).

FIG 1
FIG 1 Phylogenetic tree of the 52 MAGs assembled from Trichodesmium colonies collected in the Red Sea.The tree is rooted by the outgroup Fuseobacterium nucleatum.Known bacterial orders are marked in different colors and several MAGs could taxonomically be identified at the genus level.The relative abundance of read counts mapping to each MAG within the Trichodesmium consortium, excluding Trichodesmium MAG 52 (±70% of total read counts) is presented as a bubble chart.The MAGs that matched to MAGs assembled from a previous metagenomic data set of Red Sea Trichodesmium colonies (38) are highlighted in blue and tentatively represent the core consortium (see Fig. S2).MAGs that did not meet the requirements of a high-quality genome (>90% completeness; <5% redundancy) are indicated in gray.Note that re-occurring MAGs are not necessarily the most abundant MAGs present within the Trichodesmium colony (see Tables S1 and S2 for a full taxonomic description of each MAG from each data set).

FIG 2
FIG 2 Summary of Fe-uptake and siderophore biosynthesis genes present in MAGs of the Trichodesmium consortium (see TableS4and Materials and Methods

FIG 3
FIG 3 Summary of P-metabolism genes present in MAGs of the Trichodesmium consortium (see TableS4and Materials and Methods for more details).Genes

FIG 4
FIG 4 Summary of N-metabolism genes present in MAGs of the Trichodesmium consortium (see TableS4and Materials and Methods for more details).Genes

FIG 5
FIG5 Summary of vitamin B 1 , B 7 , and B 12 biosynthesis and uptake pathways (see TableS4and Materials and Methods for more details).Genes of interest,

FIG 6
FIG6 Schematic summary of the potential interactions taking place within the Trichodesmium consortia as discussed in this study.Genes for each trait are noted in TableS4.Each blue bubble indicates a different function, and each blue circle pools together the different MAGs containing a particular trait for that function.Each MAG is represented by a colored dot reflective of the taxonomic order it is associated with (gray dots represent MAGs that were not attributed to a specific taxonomic order).Trichodesmium is highlighted in cobalt blue, and the important functions Trichodesmium displays are highlighted with a dotted circle (see TableS4for the full list of functional traits, presence/absence, and number of homologs).(a) Siderophore biosynthesis.Several siderophore biosynthesis genes are present in a diverse set of MAGs.Siderophores are predicted to mine Fe from dust that has been collected and centered within Trichodesmium colonies.Six of the four were identified as known NIS-type siderophores of which petrobactin, vibrioferrin, and rhizoferrin are photolabile.In the presence of sunlight, the Fe complexed to these siderophores disassociates and acts as a public good to the larger consortium.The genes and pathways for (b-i) dissimilatory nitrate reduction to ammonium (DNRA) and (b-ii) denitrification are present in several MAGs of the consortium.Denitrification appears to be modular within the Trichodesmium consortium as a different subset of bacteria contains genes for the terminal step (nosZ).(b-iii) Trichodesmium MAG 52 was the only MAG containing N 2 fixation genes in this data set.(c) HL production.Several MAGs contain an acyl-homoserine lactone synthesis pathway (AHL), including Trichodesmium.AHLs act as an intercommunicating quorum sensing molecule and have been shown to influence the production of alkaline phosphatase (AP)