Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Electrophysiological studies of muscles in the human upper limb: The biceps brachii

  • Review Article
  • Published:
Anatomical Science International Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

The biceps brachii (BB) belongs to elbow flexors. However, because the BB acts not only as the flexor, but also as a forearm supinator in humans, its activities are much different from those of the other flexors (the brachialis and brachioradialis: BR and BRR, respectively). The present paper describes unique characteristics of the BB that emerged from recent studies using electrophysiological techniques (i.e. electromyography (EMG), electrical neuromuscular stimulation (ENS), Hoffmann (H)-reflex and post-stimulus time-histogram (PSTH)) in normal human subjects. The EMG studies have shown reciprocal contractions between the BB and the other flexors during forearm pronation/supination movements. Comparisons of EMG activities of the flexors between the pronated and supinated positions of the forearm have indicated clear differences of contraction properties between the BB and the other flexors. The ENS studies have shown that reciprocal activation between the BB and BRR following stimulation can produce a motion of supination with maintenance of flexion. This finding supports the theory that the reciprocal contractions should occur to keep constant force in flexion for supporting weight below the elbow. Studies using H-reflex and PSTH techniques have shown neural connections, which are spinal reflex arcs modulating motoneuron excitabilities with excitatory and inhibitory inputs from low-threshold muscle afferent fibers, among muscles in the human upper limb. These studies have demonstrated inhibitory neural connections between the BB and BRR. Moreover it has been shown that the connections concerning the BB differ from those concerning the BRR. Several reports have shown differences in connections between humans and animals. Therefore, the BB in humans has been compared with that in animals.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Aymard C, Chia L, Katz R, Lafitte C, Penicaud A (1995) Reciprocal inhibition between wrist flexors and extensors in man: A new set of interneurones? J Physiol 487, 221–35.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Baldissera F, Campadelli P, Cavallari P (1983) Inhibition of H-reflex in wrist flexors by group I afferents in the radial nerve. Electromyogr Clin Neurophysiol 23, 187–93.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Basmajian JV (1982) Primary Anatomy, 8th edn. Williams & Wilkins, Baltimore.

    Google Scholar 

  • Basmajian JV, Deluca CJ (1985) Muscle Alive: Their Functions Revealed by Electromyography, 5th edn. Williams & Wilkins, Baltimore.

    Google Scholar 

  • Basmajian JV, Griffin WR (1972) Function of anconeus muscle: An electromyographic study. J Bone Joint Surg 54A, 1712–14.

    Google Scholar 

  • Basmajian JV, Latif A (1957) Integrated actions and functions of the chief flexors of the elbow: A detailed electromyographic analysis. J Bone Joint Surg 39A, 1106–18.

    Google Scholar 

  • Buchanan TS, Rovai GP, Rymer WZ (1989) Strategies for muscle activation during isometric torque generation at the human elbow. J Neurophysiol 62, 1201–12.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Caicoya AG, Illert M, Jänike R (1999) Monosynaptic Ia pathways at the cat shoulder. J Physiol 518, 825–41.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Caldwell GE, Jamison JC, Lee S (1993) Amplitude and frequency measures of surface electromyography during dual task elbow torque production. Eur J Appl Physiol 66, 349–56.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Capaday C, Cody FW, Stein RB (1990) Reciprocal inhibition of soleus motor output in human during walking and voluntary tonic activity. J Neurophysiol 64, 607–16.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Cavallari P, Katz R (1989) Pattern of projections of group I afferents from forearm muscles to motoneurones supplying biceps and triceps muscles in man. Exp Brain Res 78, 465–78.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Cavallari P, Katz R, Penicaud A (1992) Patterns of projections of group I afferrents from elbow muscles to motoneurones supplying wrist muscles in man. Exp Brain Res 91, 311–19.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Chiasson RB (1976) Laboratory Anatomy of the White Rat, 3rd edn. WMC Brown Co. Publications, Dubuque.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cnockaert JC, Lensel G, Pertuzon E (1975) Relative contribution of individual muscles to the isometric contraction of a muscular group. J Biomechanics 8, 191–7.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Cooper G, Schiller AL (1975) Anatomy of the Guinea Pig, 8th edn. Harvard University Press, Cambridge.

    Google Scholar 

  • Craigie EH (1969) Bensley’s Practical Anatomy of the Rabbit. University of Toronto Press, Toronto.

    Google Scholar 

  • Creange A, Faist M, Katz R, Panicaud A (1992) Distributions of heteronymous Ia facilitation and recurrent inhibition in the human deltoid motor nucleus. Exp Brain Res 90, 620–4.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Crouch JE (1969) Text-Atlas of Cat Anatomy. Lea & Febiger, Philadelphia.

    Google Scholar 

  • Day BL, Marsden CD, Obeso JA, Rothwell JC (1984) Reciprocal inhibition between the muscles of the human forearm. J Physiol 349, 519–34.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Eccles RM, Lundberg A (1958) Integrative pattern of Ia synaptic action on motoneurones of hip and knee muscles. J Physio 144, 271–98.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Eccles JC, Eccles RM, Lundberg A (1957a) The convergence of monosynaptic excitatory afferents onto many different species of alpha motoneurone. J Physiol 137, 22–50.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Eccles JC, Eccles RM, Lundberg A (1957b) Synaptic actions on motoneurones in relation to the two components of the group I muscle afferent volleys. J Physiol 136, 527–46.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Ellaway PH (1978) Cumulative sum technique and its application to the analysis of peristimulus time histograms. Electro-enceph Clin Neurophysiol 45, 302–4.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • English AWM (1978a) Functional analysis of the shoulder girdle of cats during locomotion. J Morph 156, 279–92.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • English AWM (1978b) An electromyographic analysis of fore-limb muscles during overground stepping in the cat. J Exp Biol 76, 105–22.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Evans HE, Christensen GC (1979) Miller’s Anatomy of the Dog, 2nd edn. Saunders Co., Philadelphia.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fetz E, Gustafsson B (1983) Relation between shapes of postsynaptic potentials and changes in firing probability of cat motoneurones. J Physiol 341, 387–410.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Fetz E, Jankowska E, Johanisson T, Lipski J (1979) Autogenic inhibition of motoneurones by impulses in group Ia muscle spindle afferents. J Physiol 293, 173–95.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Fournier E, Meunier S, Pierrot-Deseilligny E, Shindo M (1986) Evidence for interneuronally mediated Ia excitatory effects to human quadriceps motoneurones. J Physiol 377, 143–69.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Fritz N, Illert M, De La Motte S, Reeh P, Saggau P (1989) Pattern of monosynaptic Ia connections in the cat forelimb. J Physiol 419, 321–51.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Fujii H, Kobayashi S, Shinozaki K et al. (2001) Inhibitory projections of muscle afferents between the bracchioradialis and flexor carpi radialis in humans. Neurosci Res Suppl 25, S87 (Abstract).

    Google Scholar 

  • Fujii H, Sato T, Naito A et al. (2002) Functional anatomical studies of extensor carpi radialis and pronator teres activities during wrist movements in humans. Neurosci Res Suppl 26, S76 (Abstract).

    Google Scholar 

  • Fukushima Y, Yamashita N, Yamashita N, Shimada Y (1982) Facilitaion of H-reflex by homonymous Ia-afferent fibers in man. J Neurophysiol 48, 1079–88.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Gielen CCAM, von Zuylen EJ (1986) Coodinations of arm muscles during flexion and supination: Application of the tensor analysis approach. Neuroscience 17, 527–39.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hagbarth KE (1981) Fusimotor and stretch reflex functions studied in recording from muscle spindle afferents in man. In Muscle Receptors and Movement (Taylor A, Prochazka A, eds). Macmillan, London, 277–85.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hagbarth KE, Vallbo AB (1968) Dischrge characteristics of human muscle afferents during muscle stretch and contraction. Exp Neurol 22, 674–94.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Handa Y (1997) Current topics in clinical FES in Japan. J Electromyogr Kinesiol 7, 269–74.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Handa Y, Hoshimiya N (1987) Functional electrical stimulation for the control of the upper extremities. Med Prog Technol 12, 51–63.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Handa Y, Hoshimiya N, Iguchi Y, Oda T (1989) Developments of percutaneous intramuscular electrode for multi-channel FES system. IEEE Trans Biomed Eng 36, 705–10.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Harrison BM (1970) Dissection of the Cat (and Comparisons with Man), 6th edn. CV Mosby, St Louis.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hasan Z, Enoka RM (1985) Isometric torque-angle relationship and movement-related activity of human elbow flexors: Implications for the equilibrium-point hypothesis. Exp Brain Res 59, 441–50.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hebert LJ, De Serres SJ, Arsenault AB (1991) Cocontraction of the elbow muscles during combined tasks of pronation- flexion and supination-flexion. Electromyogr Clin Neurophysiol 31, 483–8.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hoffmann P (1918) Über die Beziehungen der Sehnenreflexe zur willkürichen Bewegung und zum Tonus. Z Biol 68, 351–70.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hoffmann P, Illert M, Wiedemann E (1985) EMG recordings from the cat forelimb during unrestrained locomotion. Neurosci Lett Suppl 22, S126 (Abstract).

    Google Scholar 

  • Hoffmann P, Illert M, Wiedemann E (1986) EMG pattern of cat forelimb muscles during target reaching and food taking movements. Neurosci Lett Suppl 26, S215 (Abstract).

    Google Scholar 

  • Hoffmann P, Illert M, Wiedemann E (1987) EMG activity of pronator and supnator muscles of the cat forelimb during treadmill locomotion. Pflügers Arch 408, R408 (Abstract).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hoshimiya N, Naito A, Yajima M, Handa Y (1989) A multichannel FES system for restoration of motor functions in high spinal cord injury patients: A respiration-controlled system for multijoint upper extremity. IEEE Trans Biomed Eng 36, 705–10.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Houk JC, Henneman E (1967) Responses of Golgi tendon organs to active contractions of the soleus muscle. J Neuro-physiol 30, 466–81.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hultborn H (1976) Transmission in the pathway of reciprocal Ia inhibition to motoneurones and its control during the tonic stretch reflex. Prog Brain Res 44, 235–55.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hultborn H, Meunier S, Pierrot-Deseilligny E (1986) Changes in polysynaptic Ia excitation to quadriceps motoneurones during voluntary contraction in man. Exp Brain Res 63, 436–8.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Ichie M, Handa Y, Matsushita N, Naito A, Hoshimiya N (1995) Control of thumb movements: EMG analysis of the thumb and its application to functional electrical stimulation for a paralyzed hand. Front Med Biol Eng 6, 291–307.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Illert M (1996) Monosynaptic Ia pathways and motor behavior of the cat distal forelimb. Acta Neurobiol Exp 56, 423–33.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Jamison JC, Caldwell GE (1993) Muscle synergies and isometric torque production: Influence of supination and pronation level on elbow flexion. J Neurophysiol 70, 947–60.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Jancowska E (1984) Interneuronal organization in reflex pathways from proprioceptors. In Frontiers in Physiological Research (Garlick DG, Korner PI, eds). Australian Academy of Science, Canberra, 228–37.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kapandji IA (1986) Physiologie Articulaire I: Membre Superieur, 1st edn. Ishiyaku Publications, Tokyo, 132–65 (translated into Japanese by T Shimada).

    Google Scholar 

  • Katz R, Penicaud A, Rossi A (1991) Reciprocal Ia inhibition between elbow flexors and extensors in the human. J Physiol 437, 269–86.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kimura K, Takagi S (1970) On the musculature of the crab-eating monkey. Primates 11, 145–70.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kunzel W, Forstenpointner G (1994) Comparative studies on looking into lacertus fibrosus and aponeurosis of the bicipitis brachii muscle as well as assesment of the biceps brachii and brachialis muscles in sheep, goats and wild deer. Anat Anz 176, 549–54.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kunzel W, Forstenpointner G, Skolek-Winnisch R (1993) The laterocranial fascia structures in the upper and forearm and the differences in the insertion of the M. biceps brachii in domestic mammals. Anat Histol Embryol 22, 1–15.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Laporte Y, Lloyd DPC (1952) Nature and significance of the reflex connections established by large afferent fibers of muscular origin. Am J Physiol 169, 609–21.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Le Bozec S, Maton B (1982) The activities of anconeus during voluntary elbow extension: The effect of lidocaine blocking of the muscle. Electromyogr Clin Neurophysiol 22, 255–69.

    Google Scholar 

  • Le Bozec S, Maton B, Cnockaert JC (1980a) The synergy of elbow extensor muscles during static work in man. Eur Appl Physiol 43, 57–68.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Le Bozec S, Maton B, Cnockaert JC (1980b) The synergy of elbow extensor muscles during dynamic work in man. I. Elbow extension. Eur Appl Physiol 44, 255–69.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lemay MA, Crago PE, Keith MW (1996) Restoration of prono-supination control by FNS in tetraplegia: Experimental and biomechanical evaluation of feasibility. J Biomech 29, 435–42.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Liberson WT, Holmquest HJ, Scot D (1961) Functional electrotherapy: Stimulation of the peroneal nerve synchronized with the swing phase of the gait of hemiplegic patients. Arch Phys Med 42, 101–5.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Marchand-Pauvert V, Nicolas G, Pierrot-Desilligny E (2000) Monosynaptic Ia projections from intrinsic hand muscles to forearm motoneurones in humans. J Physiol 525, 241–52.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Maton B, Le Bozec S, Cnockaert JC (1980) The synergy of elbow extensor muscles during dynamic work in man. II. Breaking of elbow flexion. Eur Appl Physiol 44, 271–8.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Matsushita N, Handa Y, Ichie M, Hoshimiya N (1995) Electromy-ogram analysis and electrical stimulation control of paralyzed wrist and hand. J Electromyogr Kinesiol 5, 117–28.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mazzocchio R, Rothwell JC, Rossi A (1995) Distribution of Ia effects onto human hand muscle motoneurones as revealed using an H reflex technique. J Physiol 489, 263–73.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Miyasaka T, Sun Y-J, Naito A et al. (1995) Reciprocal inhibition between biceps brachii and brachioradialis in the human. In Proceedings of the 4th IBRO World Congress of Neuro-science. Rapid Communications, Oxford, 334 (Abstract).

    Google Scholar 

  • Miyasaka T, Sun Y-J, Naito A, Shindo M (1996) Inhibitory projections from the biceps brachii to the pronator teres motoneurones in the human. Neurosci Res Suppl 20, S183 (Abstract).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Miyasaka T, Sun Y-J, Naito A, Chishima M, Momoi H, Shindo M (1997) Inhibition from the pronator teres to the biceps brachii motoneurones in human. Neurosci Res Suppl 21, S198 (Abstract).

    Google Scholar 

  • Miyasaka T, Naito A, Morita H, Sun Y-J, Chishima M, Shindo M (1998) Inhibitory neural connection from the brachioradialis to the pronator teres in human. Neurosci Res Suppl 22, S159 (Abstract).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Miyasaka T, Naito A, Shindo M et al. (2004) Excitatory and inhibitory projections of Group I afferents in the median nerve to brachioradialis motoneurones in humans. Exp Brain Res (in press).

  • Mizuno Y, Tanaka R, Yanagisawa N (1976) Reciprocal group I inhibition on triceps surae motoneurones in man. J Neuro-physiol 34, 1010–17.

    Google Scholar 

  • Murray WM, Buchanan TS, Delp SL (2000) The isometric functional capacity of muscles that cross the elbow. J Biomech 33, 943–52.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Naito A, Shimizu Y, Handa Y, Ichie M, Hoshimiya N (1991) Functional anatomical studies of elbow movements. I. Elec-tromyographic (EMG) analysis. Okajimas Folia Anat Jpn 68, 283–8.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Naito A, Handa Y, Handa T, Ichie M, Hoshimiya N, Shimizu Y (1994a) Study on the elbow movement produced by functional electrical stimulation (FES). Tohoku J Exp Med 174, 343–9.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Naito A, Yajima M, Fukamachi H et al. (1994b) Electrophysiolog-ical studies of the biceps brachii activities in supination and flexion of the elbow joint. Tohoku J Exp Med 173, 259–67.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Naito A, Yajima M, Fukamachi H et al. (1994c) Functional electrical stimulation (FES) to the biceps brachii for controlling forearm supination in the paralyzed upper extremity. Tohoku J Exp Med 173, 269–73.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Naito A, Yajima M, Fukamachi H, Ushikoshi K, Sun Y-J, Shimizu Y (1995) Electromyographic (EMG) study of the elbow flexors during supination and pronation of the forearm. Tohoku J Exp Med 175, 285–8.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Naito A, Shindo M, Miyasaka T, Sun Y-J, Morita H (1996) Inhibitory projections from brachioradialis to biceps brachii motoneurones in human. Exp Brain Res 111, 483–6.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Naito A, Shindo M, Miyasaka T, Sun Y-J, Momoi H, Chishima M (1998a) Inhibitory projections from pronator teres to biceps brachii motoneurones in human. Exp Brain Res 121, 99–102.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Naito A, Sun Y-J, Yajima M, Fukamachi H, Ushikoshi K (1998b) Electromyographic study of the elbow flexors and extensors in a motion of forearm pronation/supination while maintaining elbow flexion in humans. Tohoku J Exp Med 186, 267–77.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Naito A, Miyasaka T, Morita H, Chishima M, Shindo M (1999) Neural connections from the median nerve to brachioradialis motoneurones in humans: An electrophysiological study with the post-stimulus time-histogram method. Neurosci Res Suppl 23, S205 (Abstract).

    Google Scholar 

  • Naito A, Shinozaki K, Kobayashi S et al. (2001) Excitatory projections of muscle afferents between the bracchioradialis and extensor carpi radialis in humans. Neurosci Res Suppl 25, S87 (Abstract).

    Google Scholar 

  • Naito A, Yajima M, Chishima M, Sun Y-J (2002) A motion of forearm supination with maintenance of elbow flexion produced by electrical stimulation to two elbow flexors in humans. J Electromyogr Kinesiol 12, 259–65.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Petersen N, Morita H, Nielsen J (1998) Evaluation of reciprocal inhibition of the soleus H-reflex during tonic plantar flexion in man. J Neurosci Methods 84, 1–8.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Pierrot-Deseilligny E, Katz R, Morin C (1979) Evidence for Ib inhibiiton in human subjects. Brain Res 166, 176–9.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Pierrot-Deseilligny E, Bergego C, Katz R, Morin C (1981a) Cutaneous depression of Ib reflex pathways to motoneurones in man. Exp Brain Res 42, 351–61.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Pierrot-Deseilligny E, Morin C, Bergego C, Tankov N (1981b) Pattern of group I fibre projections from ankle flexor and ectensor muscles in man. Exp Brain Res 42, 337–50.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Porter R, Lemon R (1992) Corticospinal Function and Voluntary Movement. Oxford University Press, Oxford.

    Google Scholar 

  • Prochazka A, Gorassini M (1998a) Models of ensemble firing of muscle spindle afferents recorded during normal locomotion in cats. J Physiol 507, 277–91.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Prochazka A, Gorassini M (1998b) Ensemble firing of muscle spindle afferents recorded during normal locomotion in cats. J Physiol 507, 293–304.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Reighard J, Jennings HS (1934) Anatomy of the Cats. Holt, Rinehart & Winston, New York.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rossi A, Decchi B, Zalaffi A, Mazzocchio R (1995) Group Ia non-reciprocal inhibition from wrist extensor to flexor motoneurones in humans. Neurosci Lett 191, 205–7.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Sato T, Fujii H, Naito A et al. (2002) Inhibition of muscle afferents from the brachioradialis to triceps brachii motoneurones in humans: Central pathway. Acta Anat Nippon Suppl 77, H511 (Abstract).

    Google Scholar 

  • Sato T, Fujii H, Naito A, Suzuki K, Kobayashi S, Shinozaki K (2003) EMG study of forearm pronation/supination movements for clarifying functions of neural connections among human arm muscles. Acta Anat Nippon Suppl 78, P278 (in Japanese).

    Google Scholar 

  • Sherrington CS (1906) The Integrative Action of the Nervous System. Yale University Press, New Haven.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sisson S, Grossman JD (1971) The Anatomy of the Domestic Animals. WB Sauders, Philadelphia.

    Google Scholar 

  • Snedecor GW, Cochran WG (1967) Statistical Methods, 6th edn. The Iowa State University Press, Ames (in Japanese).

    Google Scholar 

  • Stephens JA, Usherwood TP, Garnett R (1976) Technique for studying synaptic connections of single motoneurones in man. Nature 263, 343–4.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Tanaka R (1974) Reciprocal Ia inhibition during voluntary movements in man. Exp Brain Res 21, 529–40.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Tanaka R (1976) Reciprocal Ia inhibition and voluntary movements in man. Prog Brain Res 44, 291–302.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Vallbo AB (1970) Discharge patterns in human muscle spindle afferents during isometric voluntary contractions. Acta Physiol Scand 80, 552–6.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Williams PL, Bannister LH, Berry MM et al. (1995) Gray’s Anatomy, 38th edn. Churchill Livingstone, New York.

    Google Scholar 

  • Yanagisawa N, Tanaka R, Ito Z (1976) Reciprocal Ia inhibition in spastic hemiplegia of man. Brain 99, 555–74.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • von Zuylen EJ, Gielen CCAM, Denier van der Gon JJ (1988) Coordination and inhomogeneous activation of human arm muscles during isometric torque. J Neurophysiol 60, 1523–48.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Anatomy, Yamagata University School of Medicine, 2-2-2 Iida-Nishi, 990-9585, Yamagata, Japan

    Akira Naito

Authors
  1. Akira Naito
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Akira Naito.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Naito, A. Electrophysiological studies of muscles in the human upper limb: The biceps brachii. Anato Sci Int 79, 11–20 (2004). https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1447-073x.2004.00064.x

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1447-073x.2004.00064.x

Key words

Search

Navigation