Combating parachute science in Latin America through Indigenous agency

Article impact statement : Strategies to combat parachute science in Latin America must recognize that it takes place within and from outside the region.

graphic analysis of coral reef biodiversity research shows that researchers from host countries in the Pacific are not equitably represented in terms of research output and authorship (Stefanoudis et al., 2021).Local researchers have a lack of agency, in part due to a lack of opportunity and investment by outside researchers during collaboration.Thus, local researchers' growth and development are hindered, which adds to their already existing difficulties of fewer resources and language barriers in publishing and grant writing, among others (Miller et al., 2023).This produces a cycle in research in which new scholarship by local researchers is ignored because they may not have published in the peer-reviewed literature, which, although not indicative of the relevance or importance of their work, represents the global standard of research.Although often started with good intentions and a desire for collaboration, research that does not properly invest in building equitable partnerships at all stages exacerbates power imbalances that lead to parachute science.

PARACHUTE SCIENCE IN LATIN AMERICA
The occurrence of parachute science in conservation research has led to a number of new studies on the topic, which has started a new dialogue surrounding the global research movement and the question of how to foster global equity in research (Mwampamba et al., 2022).So far, most of the literature on research equity and parachute science has come out of sub-Saharan Africa and South and Southeast Asia (Friedman et al., 2018).Although Latin America is the subject of numerous studies on general conservation trends in the Global South (Miller et al., 2023), few specific studies or perspective pieces covering parachute science in Latin America exist (Stöfen-O'Brien et al., 2022).Latin America's complex postcolonial reality should lead to Latin Americans contributing a large portion to the new literature on parachute science, yet there is a lack of dialogue on parachute science in Latin America.A multipronged effort is needed to increase equitable collaboration between Latin America and Western countries and between non-Indigenous Latin Americans and Indigenous Peoples.Only by fully reckoning with the nuanced parachute science dynamics in Latin America can local researchers begin to develop productive research relationships within its borders and abroad.
Although this dynamic is central to parachute science, it is also important to explore the potential for researchers from the Global South to practice parachute science within their own borders and perpetuate colonial power imbalances (Patel, 2022).The current literature on parachute science does not demonstrate the complexities of diasporic research or the potential for research within the Global South to continue to perpetuate colonial power imbalances or recreate parachute science within its own borders; instead, it focuses on the stark contrast between the Global North and South.Patel (2022) discusses the role of diaspora in conservation science as researchers in diaspora move between the Global North and South.Diaspora can build bridges between groups and provide a unique perspective because people of a diaspora live and work in multiple spaces and systems.Amplifying voices of members of the Western scientific community with ties to the Global South can shed light on power imbalances and colonial legacies on both ends (Patel, 2022).
The complicated colonial history of Latin America brings the basic narrative of parachute science into question.European colonization began in Latin America almost 600 years ago; thus, the consequences of colonization have long been embedded in the sociopolitical reality of the region.Imperial Spain's policy of racial mixing (mestizaje) changed the fabric of the region permanently because the conquistadors never left and became enmeshed with the Indigenous Peoples.The legacy of colonialism is present in Latin America's interactions with the West and in its internal interactions because of the elite status of Spanishdescended Latinos and the continued oppression of Indigenous Peoples in the region.Thus, intraparachute science can also take place.Many of the mechanisms of parachute science are applied by the ruling class in their own nations; these mechanisms negatively affect Indigenous and impoverished people within a country.For example, 2 studies by Mexican researchers that depended on the knowledge of local Indigenous People did not include any Indigenous People in the design phase of their studies or include them as authors (Espinoza-Tenorio et al., 2013;Garcia-Flores et al., 2022).Conservationists have not yet explored how parachute science can occur in a country beyond mentioning its possibility and do not specifically name countries or regions where this occurs (de Vos & Schwartz, 2022).The diversity and presence of Indigenous Peoples in Latin American countries make the region prone to intraparachute science; thus, strategies for combating parachute science must acknowledge this nuance and build solutions that work on both fronts.
Current diversity, equity, and inclusion and parachute science discussions focus on polarized Global North and South dynamics.How can Latin America researchers discuss their relationship with the Global North simply when these same dynamics occur within the borders of their own countries?At the core of parachute science is the presence of an outsider with resources who controls the research agenda and wields unequal power over local researchers or people with knowledge relevant to the study.With a region as stratified, as diverse, and with as long a colonial history as Latin America, these power imbalances are everywhere.The layered dynamics make it difficult for Western researchers, even if they are conscientious about their role as foreign scientists, to collaborate equitably with scientists from the region.A Latin American scientist from an urban center with no Indigenous ties, for example, may not be taking the needs or motivations of an Indigenous conservation leader from a rural region into account while conducting research, despite the fact that in the eyes of Western researchers this may be considered local collaboration.The lack of nuance and focus on this narrative in the literature on parachute science in conservation research ultimately limits the potential for research to reflect the interests, needs, and goals of the people in the region.Western scientists and local Latin American scientists should educate themselves on this issue and become more accountable and conscientious researchers.

BUILDING EQUITABLE SOLUTIONS
Solutions to combat parachute science in Latin America must be multipronged, reckoning with both the Indigenous and urbanized mestizo population dynamics.Central to combating parachute science in Latin America is leveraging the ties to Indigenous communities to promote local research rather than foreign research.Local Latin American researchers and universities can forge closer bonds of communication with local Indigenous communities than Western universities due to prior ties, geographical closeness, and fewer language barriers.It is easier for Indigenous groups in Latin America to make requests or use connections to contact local universities or other research institutions rather than international ones, which fosters their ability to manage their lands.Researchers from Latin America and the West conducting research on lands with Indigenous communities should focus on studies led, shaped, or requested by local Indigenous groups rather than on research conceived of separately from an Indigenous group, where the only choice and agency given to them lie in whether or not to participate.This changes the language and attitude toward collaborating with Indigenous communities from a forced role of helpers or supporters who provide information to inform management decisions made above them to one of equal partners in a project.In the same way that local researchers should be able to determine their work and not be entirely beholden to Western interests, Indigenous groups should be able to determine the direction or even the existence of research on their ancestral lands.Conservation work that is truly supported locally and is relevant regionally can improve the effectiveness of conservation decisions and break down power imbalances.Tobes et al. (2022) present a case study that shows the power of intranational collaboration.They conducted a series of workshops with and collected data from the Arawanu Kichwa people in the Ecuadorian Amazon to record formally their fish classification system and knowledge.This study was requested by the local Kichwa people, who wanted to organize their collective ichthyological knowledge.The Kichwa people requested the research project after hearing of similar studies with other Kichwa groups, and it demonstrates the ability of local research institutions to make connections with and empower local Indigenous groups to make decisions for their communities.A second promising case study is presented in Velázquez-Rosas et al. (2018).These authors collaboratively designed an agroforestry management model to recover Zuelania guidonia populations.The trees are used in a sacred ritual for the Voladores within a Totonac community.Totonac leaders of the Voladores contacted the University of Veracruz asking for advice; this led to the creation of the study.
These case studies demonstrate the importance of fostering local, Latin American-based research to further Indigenous agency in conservation, rather than continuing to rely on Western parachute science, while also working to destabilize inequalities within the region.Regional and international institutions, such as governments, NGOs, and donor agencies, should foster local agency by building informed, conscientious, and empowered relationships so that effective conservation solutions can be developed.Local and Western researchers should also prioritize creating equitable partnerships and breaking down barriers on all sides of collaboration.By dismantling parachute science on both fronts, conservation work in Latin America can become more effective and equitable.

CONCLUSION
Parachute science occurs in the work of Western and Latin American researchers and institutions, and further nuance is needed to explore the intersectionality between ethnicity, class, and social differences in the Global South and to ensure that this complexity is represented in conservation actions.Future studies should acknowledge these nuances to move forward with sustainable and equitable solutions.Building intranational relationships between Indigenous groups and researchers can strengthen research in the Global South and build an equitable foundation for independent research within Latin America.By refusing to mirror power dynamics from abroad, Latin Amer-ican researchers can build self-sufficient and strong research capacity.