Design and marketing: Intersections and challenges

This editorial article reports on interdisciplinary research being conducted at the interface between the scientific disciplines of marketing and design. It reviews the 11 academic papers from the special issue situated at this intersection, thereby showing the richness of research happening in this liminal area. At the same time, the paper observes how the disciplines' different scopes as well as their different modi operandi inhibit the collaboration between marketing and design research. Whereas marketing largely follows the paradigm of empirical realism asking how the current world works, design largely follows the pragmatist paradigm asking how a future world can be shaped. Finally, this paper contains a number of suggestions on how to foster cooperation between the two disciplines. and Correia (2021) identify antecedents of tourists' acceptance of mobile tourism apps; Scholz, Redler, and Pagel (2021) explore the influence of shop- ping companions in retail sales conversations; Idemen, Elmadag, and Okan (2021) investigate the effects of designers as product cues; and finally, Schuberth (2021) presents confirmatory composite analysis as a multivariate statistical method that can combine behavioural and design research.


INTRODUCTION
Marketing is a business function that has an important impact on firms' success. According to the marketing concept, the key to achieving organizational goals is to be more effective than competitors in creating, delivering and communicating superior customer value to the selected target customers (Kotler & Keller, 2008). If firms employ concepts such as service quality and market orientation, they can expect more satisfied and loyal customers (Zeithaml, Berry, & Parasuraman, 1996) and ultimately increased profitability in their business (Narver & Slater, 1990).
However, marketing is more than just a value-generating business function; it is also a scientific discipline. Departing from its roots as a business practice, it became a profession in the mid-1900s (Brown, 1948) and soon turned into a science (Buzzell, 1963) of which the scope can best be described as the 'science of exchange' (Bagozzi, 1975).

Marketing borrows from and contributes to other disciplines
Marketing is widely regarded as a discipline of applied research, which borrows ideas and principles from other, often more fundamental disciplines (Hunt, 1994), and applies them in various contexts. For instance, a large part of marketing's methodological inventory has been imported from econometrics and psychometrics, the methodological branches of economics and psychology. But marketing's intersection with other scientific disciplines goes much further than that. Because the boundaries between disciplines have been identified as fertile grounds for new discoveries and solutions (Lakhani, Jeppesen, Lohse, & Panetta, 2007;Rylance, 2015), it comes as no surprise that more and more research attention is being devoted to these intersections. Table 1 shows a list of neighbouring disciplines of which the intersections with marketing produce sufficient research to nourish at least one scholarly journal. Whereas in some instances, marketing clearly borrows from another field and in other instances, it clearly contributes, sometimes, both borrowing and contributing happen at Not all intersections where marketing and other disciplines meet are so large that they have a scholarly journal devoted to them.
However, that does not mean such an intersection is negligible. For instance, research at the intersection of marketing and accounting (Hodge, Brown, & Lumpkin, 1991) or architecture (Brown, 1990) addresses important questions.
Some interdisciplinary research related to marketing is so new that the intersection is only just emerging. One such trending field is neuromarketing, which connects marketing to neuroscience. Another, at least as fruitful an intersection, is the one between marketing and design (Zhang, Hu, & Kotabe, 2011). This is what this paper and this special issue is about.

Design and marketing
According to the Accreditation Board for Engineering and Technology, design can be defined as 'the process of devising a system, component, or process to meet desired needs. It is a decision-making process (often iterative), in which the basic science and mathematics and engineering sciences are applied to convert resources optimally to meet a stated objective'. Because needs are nothing but a human lack of satisfaction, that is, they are a human state, design can be seen as the human-centred approach to innovation (Gruber, De Leon, George, & Thompson, 2015). In this perspective, design turns a spotlight on the development of solutions that are meaningful to customers (Brown, 2008)-a perspective very similar to one held in marketing.
Researchers largely agree on the importance of design (e. g., Gemser & Leenders, 2001;Sarasvathy, Dew, Read, & Wiltbank, 2008;Ulrich & Eppinger, 2000). Similar to marketing, design is widely recognized as a success factor in firms, mainly because of its potential to boost a firm's competitiveness (Hertenstein, Platt, & Veryzer, 2013 Designers make use of marketing instruments such as human branding (Moore, Fernie, & Burt, 2000;Scheidt, Gelhard, & Henseler, 2020), and marketing is included in higher education industrial design curricula (Henseler, 2015;Wolff & Capra Galina, 2008 Design, like marketing, is a relatively young scientific discipline. It is largely understood as having been brought into being by Herbert Simon's seminal monograph on the 'Sciences of the Artificial' (Simon, 1969), in which he distinguished between the natural sciences aimed at analysing the world and the design sciences aimed at shaping the world. The mission of design research is 'to produce knowledge for the design and realization of artefacts, i. e. to solve construction problems, or to be used in the improvement of the performance of existing entities, i. e. to solve improvement problems' (Aken, 2004).
Despite certain overlaps, there is a scarcity of research connecting marketing and design. Only recently, has there been an increasing interest in better understanding how design and design management contribute to marketing strategy (Bloch, 2011

The different worldviews of marketing and design
One difficulty in the collaboration between marketing and design is their different worldviews. Srinivasan et al. (1997, p. 156) trace this difference back to how marketing and design experts are trained: 'Industrial designers are often trained to see a product and its environment as an integrated whole, a gestalt, so that the different product attributes, price, aesthetics, usability, and quality of manufacture are similarly aligned, thereby reinforcing one another.
Consequently, designers and marketing researchers differ fundamentally in the level of trust they put in rationalist, decompositional techniques and statistical survey instruments for product development. This difference can cause tensions between the disciplines.
We contend that the one discipline is weak where the other is strong and that these are complementary, rather than competing, inputs to the product design process.' As concrete manifestation of these tensions in practice, Bruce and Cooper (1997) mention low mutual respect between design and marketing, a lack of clear information supplied to design and marketing not understanding the design process.
A different worldview also becomes apparent in how each discipline formulates research questions and how they conduct research, each largely influenced by the scientific paradigm they pursue. Marketing research largely follows an empirical realist paradigm, trying to understand the current world and seeking the validity of its concepts in whether they exist. Design research largely follows a pragmatist paradigm, trying to shape the future world and assessing whether the designed artefacts are functional. Often, the pursued paradigm can be inferred from how the research question is formulated. Table 2  So far, when marketing scholars reach out to design, they touch design topics without really engaging in design. For instance, Homburg, Schwemmle, and Kuehnl (2015) investigate whether product design exists, and Schnurr (2017) asks whether the extent of functional and aesthetic co-creation has an effect on customers' quality perceptions of the co-created product. None of them, however, (dare to) present a new artefact and then demonstrate that it works. Yet more designer-type questions are not far removed from marketing research questions, such as 'How can we facilitate the creativity of a new product?' as Kwon, Lee, and Kim (2015) asked. The question is directed towards the future and has a clear design focus. How is … ? How should … ?
Is there … ? C a n w e… ?
What is … ? What is the best … ?
How does … work? How can we get … working?

Paper 2: An investigation of the complementary effects of technology, market and design capabilities on exploratory and exploitative innovations: Evidence from micro and small-sized tech-enterprises in China
Besides technology, Xue and Swan (2020) identify design and the market as important driving forces in enterprise innovation activities.
In order to better understand their combined effects on exploratory and exploitative innovations, the authors conduct survey research among 357 micro and small-sized tech-enterprises (MSTEs) in a fast-developing region of China. They find that the effect of design capabilities on innovation is not ubiquitously the same but is contingent on technology and the market. In particular, design capabilities' effect on exploitative innovation depends on the market, and their effect on exploratory innovation depends on both technology and the market.

Paper 3: When external design and marketing collaborate to develop new products: Typology of patterns
Along with the rise of open innovation, external design has become an increasingly prominent management instrument. Hemonnet-Goujot, 1 Abecassis-Moedas, and Manceau (2020) study the collaboration between marketing and external design in the new product development process. In qualitative research using seven case studies, they propose a typology of three collaboration patterns between external design and marketing. The first type of collaboration is characterized by a strong marketing lead and relies on customer-based designers.
The second type of collaboration is best described by a strong design lead and relies on process-based designers. The third type of collaboration makes use of co-branding with star designers. Similar to Mulder-Nijkamp (2020), Hemonnet-Goujot et al. (2020) emphasize the right balance between product innovativeness and brand consistency.

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Paper 4: Co-creation and co-design in pop-up stores: The intersection of marketing and design research?
Overdiek and Warnaby (2020)  Two case studies illustrate how this dual form of co-creation can occur.

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Paper 5: The effect of 'co-creation with consumers' claims on purchase intention: The moderating role of product category performance information Huertas and Pergentino (2020) investigate the extent to which the effect of a consumer co-creation claim on customers' purchase intention depends on context information related to the product's category performance. They conduct two experiments with consumers in which they manipulated both variables. Across studies, there is consistent empirical evidence that consumer co-creation claims have more impact under the contingency of negative information on product category performance.

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Paper 6: To what extent are digital influencers creative? Brito and Guilherme (2020) assessed creativity and innovation in the profiles of digital influencers and developed an understanding of how they participate in the process of content creation shared with their partner brands. By means of in-depth interviews with digital influencers, they reveal that these respondents express not only four of the nine dimensions of creativity but also a new attribute that the authors dub 'originality'. Digital influencers seem to play a more active role in the co-creation experience than the scholarly literature has reported so far. Sharing creative, innovative, quality content, as well as being involved in content production with the brands during the different stages of message development, is pivotal for them.

Paper 7: Struggles as triggers in a design thinking journey
Whereas the benefits of design thinking as an approach to developing innovations are widely recognized, it is also important to acknowledge the tensions the approach creates-particularly to design thinking novices. To shed light on these tensions, Coco, Calcagno, and Lusiani (2020) conducted a qualitative study focusing on the struggles that management students face during a design thinking innovation journey. Employing inductive reasoning, they organize the participants' experiences, opinions, feelings and cognition into three main categories of struggles and triggers, identified as destabilizing, non-deciding and abstracting. All of these struggles and triggers entail a cultural clash with the participants' educational background.

Paper 8: From the classical art to the urban art infusion effect: The effect of street art and graffiti on consumers' product evaluation
The art infusion effect (Hagtvedt & Patrick, 2008) is a special kind of spillover effect according to which consumers' associations with (typically classical fine) arts are transferred to a product/brand if the art and the product/brand are jointly communicated. Baumgarth and Bahati Wieker (2020) investigate whether the art infusion effect can be generalized to urban art such as street art and graffiti. Based on a small survey, the authors can confirm such generalization. They find that urban art, particularly street art, is also perceived as art. A subsequent laboratory experiment provides evidence for an urban art infusion effect in the sense that the presence of urban art enhances a favourable evaluation of the product. However, mediation analysis shows that this effect is purely indirect, mediated by luxury perception, lifestyle perception and the fit between the art and the product.

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Paper 9: Post-adoption buffering effects of innovative product aesthetics Nagel and Schumann (2020) investigate post-adoption buffering effects the aesthetics of innovative products can have, that is, how aesthetics influences consumer behaviour after the product has been adopted. Relying on a longitudinal study among early adopters of a battery-electric car model, they find that consumers' perceptions of innovative aesthetic value buffer the product-related hedonic experience's effect on attitudes towards the product. Additionally, they detect a moderating effect of innate consumer innovativeness.

Paper 10: Creative heritage: Overcoming tensions between innovation and tradition in the luxury industry
The trade-off between product innovativeness and brand consistency is a recurring phenomenon in the intersection of marketing and design.
This often leads to conflict between the two functions in innovation projects. Carvajal Pérez, Le Masson, Weil, Araud, and Chaperon (2020) notice that in luxury industries, these difficulties are exacerbated by tension between innovation and tradition, which can diminish originality and operational efficiency. In a qualitative study based on three design projects of a luxury champagne house, they discover a cognitive resource type-creative heritage-that can help marketing and design teams in luxury organizations to address destructive and creative tensions and overcome the trade-off. This enables design originality that is coherent with tradition and operational efficiency.

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Paper 11: Design and the customer experience: The challenge of embodying new meaning in a new service Innovation of meaning (Verganti, 2009) is an innovation strategy that entails conceptualizing new meanings consumers will attach to specific products and services. Artusi and Bellini (2020) seek a solution to the problem of how to embody new meaning in a new solution and present a method of developing new concepts aligned with the innovation of meaning framework's core principles. They examine the method's efficacy by means of an experiment among managers and find that the service concept must be simple and focused on one concrete element in the customer journey, the so-called moment of meaning.

SYNTHESIS AND OUTLOOK
This paper started with recognizing the scarcity of research on the intersection of design and marketing. What does this intersection, where marketing borrows from design and design borrows from marketing, look like? As our walk through the 11 studies on this intersection show, the truth regarding relevant research is much richer.
Some of this richness can be inferred from Table 3, which lists the 11 studies alongside their research questions, the type of research and the unit of analysis.
First, the studies differ regarding which field they inform. Some studies inform design, some inform marketing and some inform a higher level interested in the cross-functional collaboration.
Second, the studies differ regarding the paradigm within which the research is conducted. Whereas any scientific research aims to advance knowledge (Bunge, 1967), the ways in which scholars accomplish this can vary considerably. Eight of the 11 studies we report seek to understand the world in which design and marketing operate. Using the formulation of their research questions (see Table 2) as a proxy, it appears that they largely follow the empirical realist paradigm. In Table 3, we classify them as 'research'. The remaining three studies seek to shape the intersection of marketing and design. According to the formulation of their research questions, they follow the pragmatist paradigm. In Table 3

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Some of the ideas contained in this article were presented in the first author's inaugural speech (Henseler, 2015) and a keynote talk at the International Conference on Marketing and Design (Henseler, 2018 Björk, for the support and encouragement they have given.

FUNDING INFORMATION
This paper and the guest editors' work on this CIM special issue on 'Marketing & Design' is partially financed by National Funds provided by the FCT-Foundation for Science and Technology, through project UIDB/04020/2020. The article publishing charge was funded by the University of Twente. No other particular funding was used.

ENDNOTES
1 Another six related papers published in a parallel special issue of the Review of Managerial Science on 'Marketing and Design': Chen (2021) investigates the cultural product innovation strategy of performing arts organizations; Motta-Filho (2021) introduces the concept of the brand experience manual; Palos-Sanchez, Saura, and Correia (2021) identify antecedents of tourists' acceptance of mobile tourism apps; Scholz, Redler, and Pagel (2021) explore the influence of shopping companions in retail sales conversations; Idemen, Elmadag, and Okan (2021) investigate the effects of designers as product cues; and finally, Schuberth (2021) presents confirmatory composite analysis as a multivariate statistical method that can combine behavioural and design research. 2020;29(S1):3-10. https://doi.org/10.1111/caim.12412