Abstract
Purpose
As evident from the literature review, the research on cyber security performance is centered on security metrics, maturity models, etc. Essentially, all these are helpful for evaluating the efficiency of cyber security organization but what matters is how the factors of internal efficiency affect the business performance, i.e. the external effectiveness. The purpose of this research paper is to derive the factors of internal efficiency and external effectiveness of cyber security and develop impact model to identify the most and least preferred parameters of internal efficiency with respect to all the parameters of external effectiveness.
Design/methodology/approach
There are two objectives for this research: Deriving the factors of internal efficiency and external effectiveness of cyber security; Developing a model to identify the impact of internal efficiency factors on the external effectiveness of cyber security since there is not much evidence of research in defining the factors of internal efficiency and external effectiveness of cyber security, the authors have chosen grounded theory methodology (GTM) to derive the parameters. In this study emic approach of GTM is followed and an algorithm is developed for administering the grounded theory research process. For the second research objective survey methodology and rank order was used to formulate the impact model. Two different samples and questionnaires were designed for each of the objectives.
Findings
For the objective 1, 11 factors of efficiency and 10 factors of effectiveness were derived. These are used as independent and dependent variable respectively in the later part of the research for the second objective. For the objective 2 the impact models among independent and dependent variables were formulated to find out the following. Most and least preferred parameters lead to internal efficiency of cyber security organization to identify the most and least preferred parameters of internal efficiency with respect to all the parameters external effectiveness.
Research limitations/implications
The factors of internal efficiency and external effectiveness constructed by using grounded theory cannot remain constant in the long run, because of dynamism of the domain itself. Over and above this, there are inherent limitations of the tools like grounded theory, used in the research. Few important limitations of GTM are as below in grounded theory, it is comparatively difficult to maintain and demonstrate the rigors of research discipline. The sheer volume of data makes the analysis and interpretation complex, and lengthy time consuming. The researchers’ presence during data gathering, which is often unavoidable and desirable too in qualitative research, may affect the subjects’ responses. The subjectivity of the data leads to difficulties in establishing reliability and validity of approaches and information. It is difficult to detect or to prevent researcher-induced bias.
Practical implications
The internal efficiency and external effectiveness factors of cyber security can be further correlated by the future researchers to understand the correlations among all the factors and predict cyber security performance. The grounded theory algorithm developed by us can be further used for qualitative research for deriving theory through abstractions in the areas where there is no sufficient availability of data. Practitioners of cyber security can use this research to focus on relevant areas depending on their respective business objective/requirements. The models developed by us can be used by the future researchers to for various sectoral validations and correlations.
Social implications
Though the financial costs of a cyber-attack are steep, the social impact of cyber security failures is less readily apparent but can cause lasting damage to customers, employees and the company. Therefore, it is always important to be mindful of how the impact of cyber security affects society as well as the bottom line when they are calculating the potential impact of a breach. Underestimating either impact can destroy a brand. The factor of internal efficiency and external effectiveness derived by us will help stakeholder in focusing on relevant area depending on their business. The impact model developed in this research is very useful for focusing a particular business requirement and accordingly tune the efficiency factor.
Originality/value
During literature study the authors did not find any evidence of application of grounded theory approach in cyber security research. While the authors were exploring research literature to find out some insight into the factor of internal efficiency and external effectiveness of cyber security, the authors did not find concrete and objective research on this. This motivated us to use grounded theory to derive these factors. This, in the authors’ opinion is one of the pioneering and unique contribution to the research as to the authors’ knowledge no researchers have ever tried to use this methodology for the stated purpose and cyber security domain in general. In this process the authors have also developed an algorithm for administering GTM. Further developing impact models using factors of internal efficiency and external effectiveness has lots of managerial and practical implication.
Keywords
Citation
Dube, D.P. and Mohanty, R.P. (2023), "Application of grounded theory in construction of factors of internal efficiency and external effectiveness of cyber security and developing impact models", Organizational Cybersecurity Journal: Practice, Process and People, Vol. 3 No. 1, pp. 41-70. https://doi.org/10.1108/OCJ-04-2022-0009
Publisher
:Emerald Publishing Limited
Copyright © 2022, Durga Prasad Dube and Rajendra Prasad Mohanty
License
Published in Organizational Cybersecurity Journal: Practice, Process and People. Published by Emerald Publishing Limited. This article is published under the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY 4.0) licence. Anyone may reproduce, distribute, translate and create derivative works of this article (for both commercial and non-commercial purposes), subject to full attribution to the original publication and authors. The full terms of this licence may be seen at http://creativecommons.org/licences/by/4.0/legalcode
1. Introduction
To be competitive, grow, evolve and innovate at the same time, corporations across the globe are resorting to digital transformation. Digital transformation helps in enhanced data collection, greater resource management, data-driven customer insights, an overall better customer experience and encourages digital culture. This in turn brings in benefits such as improved collaboration, increased profits, increased agility and improved productivity. Essentially digital transformation is all about reimagining businesses in the digital world (Dube and Mohanty, 2020). While digital transformation is expected to bring business differentiations, this also creates a lot of uncertainty in terms of governance and risk management. The proliferation of assets expands the attack surface and thus the overall exposure. World Economic Forum (WEF), in their Risk report 2016 (WEF -2016) have raised questions on the societal implications of digital transformation (Accenture-2016).
Cyber security risk is now very prominent and is recognized by all the stakeholders from individuals to government and global multilateral organizations. Risks related to cyber security are included in top five global risks by WEF in world risk report −2021. With the emergence of new technologies like IOT, blockchain, etc. the dimensions of cyber risk have expanded. The effectiveness of the existing cyber-risk assessment approaches on technologies like IOT have been challenged by few researchers too (Radanliev et al., 2021) As per the recent studies by Gartner (2019), overall spending on cyber security increased by 10.5% in 2019, with cloud security projected to grow 41.2% over the next five years. The main driver for this increase in spending is about the expanding need to be compliant with various laws and regulations related to intellectual property rights (IPR), data privacy and cyber security. With this increase in spending, it is obvious that the discussion on the ROI (return on investment), cyber security performance and above all the governance around cyber security also increased among all the stakeholders including the information security research community.
Information security governance is all about establishing a “desired” state of security and it is always the responsibility of the management to give due importance to information security as a business requirement, which will then drive and sustain the “desired state” of security This desired state is very dynamic as it must align with business objectives, technology penetration, associated threats and the risk appetite. Thus, there is a need for a generic set of guidelines for information security which should serve as a reference point for performance metrics. These guidelines should serve as a continuous improvement program (CIP) for the organizations to measure their information security posture on an ongoing basis. Essentially these CIPs are maturity models, which need to be all encompassing, considering all digital technologies and processes and need to be empirically validated. There are various maturity models on cyber security in the contemporary literature. Dube and Mohanty (2020) have presented a latest cyber security capability maturity model (CSMM). This internal maturity of IT organization is labeled as “Internal efficiency” (Simonsson et al., 2007, 2010). In the similar way various scholars have stressed the importance of maturity models for information security organization (Stevanović, 2011; Karokola et al., 2011; Salh, 2011; Watkins and Hurley, 2016; Zhao and White, 2017; Dube and Mohanty, 2020). These authors have proposed various factors for this internal maturity level of information/cyber security organization. Although these internal efficiency metrics of the Information security function are important but for the business leaders this is of moderate interest only; what really matters for them is the “External effectiveness” of services that the Information security organization delivers to the business, which is the actual performance of information security. So, the business parameters which are impacted by the efficiency of cyber security are called “External effectiveness”. Thus there is a critical need for strategic integration of internal efficiency and external effectiveness at the management systems level. Therefore the research problems at hand are,
Construct the factors of internal efficiency and external effectiveness of cyber security.
Derive the impact of internal efficiency factors on the factors of external effectiveness
With this perspective, the literature review phase of this research started with an objective to explore if any research exists in defining the parameters of internal efficiency and external effectiveness of cyber security and their linkage.
2. Review of literature
Since the area of maturity model, performance evaluation, metrics broadly come under the area of performance management research, the literature review is initiated from “IT Governance Research” and then branched to “Cyber Security Performance Management” from there. The thematic representation of the branching of the literature is depicted in Figure 1. The theoretical differences between information and cyber security are not part of the scope of our research and hence these words will be used interchangeably.
2.1 IT governance and cyber security performance management
IT governance performance is essentially the quality and value that IT organizations provide by delivering the services, as seen from a customer perspective, i.e. business point of view. This concept is more aligned to the discipline of “strategic alignment”, where a considerable amount of research has been done in mid 90s, which provide guidance on business/IT strategic alignment. Weill and Ross (2004) are probably the first few researchers who defined “IT governance performance as the effectiveness of IT governance”. They have defined four performance and effectiveness parameters namely,
“Cost-effective use of IT”
“Effective use of IT for asset utilization”
“Effective use of IT for growth”
“Effective use of IT for business flexibility”
With the growth of digital technologies, the attack surface also has increased manifold and cyber security controls have become very essential. Consequently, research studies on cyber security performance have also picked up momentum.
After reviewing the contemporary literature in this theme, the cyber security performance research branches are classified as per Table 1:
2.2 Security metrics
The objectives of cyber security metrics for organizations are defined by (Black et al. (2008)) as follows.
“Verify that their security controls are in compliance with a policy, process, or procedure”
“Identify their security strengths and weaknesses”
“Identify security trends, both within and outside the organization’s control. Studying trends allows an organization to monitor its security performance over time and to identify changes that necessitate adjustments in the organization’s security posture”.
Over the past decade, measurement of performance has become increasingly important in the field of information security, and this is now mandated explicitly by “ISO/IEC 27001 standard (ISO/IEC, 2005)”. Consequently, a substantial number of research studies have been initiated in this and its related areas too.
In the meantime, the regulatory framework across the world also got fortified and lots of new regulations came into existence which necessitated more governance around information technology sector. Of course, there are internal factors too, such as “needs to better justify and prioritize security investments, ensure good alignment between security and the overall organizational mission, goals, and objectives, and fine-tune effectiveness and efficiency of the security programs necessitated stronger governance mechanism and security metrics. (Rostyslav et al. 2011)”. The performance measurement guide on information security published by NIST (2008) describes the process of designing security metrics.
2.3 Maturity model
Extensive literature study in cyber security maturity model was carried out. A total of 10 contemporary maturity models in cyber security and latest being the CSCMM (Dube and Mohanty, 2020), were reviewed. The summary of our review of literature on this subject are as follows.
Since their attribution, maturity models have been subject to criticism. For instance, they have been characterized as “step-by-step recipes” that oversimplify reality and lack empirical foundation (Benbasat et al., 1984; De Bruin et al., 2005; King and Kraemer, 1984; McCormack et al., 2009).
As for practical application, typical purposes of use of MMs are broadly classified into three types namely; descriptive, prescriptive and comparative (De Bruin et al., 2005).
Descriptive
− A maturity model serves a descriptive purpose if it can be applied for as-is assessments where the current capabilities of the entities under investigation are assessed with respect to given criteria (Becker et al., 2009).
− This is used as a diagnostic tool for understanding the current posture.
− The derived maturity level can be reported to internal and external stakeholders and can be used as a governance tool.
Prescriptive
− A maturity model serves the prescriptive purpose if it indicates how to identify the desired maturity level and provide guidelines for improvement
− This is also used as a tool for CIP and also serves as a governance tool.
Comparative
− A maturity model serves a comparative purpose of use if it allows for internal or external benchmarking.
− This can be used for compliance purposes too where certain level of maturity is mandated by regulators, etc.
Dube and Mohanty (2020) have compared nine contemporary maturity models against seven parameters and constructed a new maturity model, i.e. CSCMM, which has also been empirically validated by them. The nine maturity used for comparison purposes are as follows:
SSE-CMM (1998)
COBIT(PAM) (2013)
NIST (2014)
ISM3 (2007)
OCTAVE (2003)
SPMM (2005)
ISMM (2016)
Cyber security capability maturity model (CMM) 2014
Cyber security capability maturity model provides a benchmark by which an organization can assess the current level of maturity of its practices, processes and set goals and priorities for improvement in cyber security (Rea-Guamán et al., 2017).
Rea-Guamán et al. (2017) also did a comparative study of four cyber security capability maturity model viz e C2M2, SSE-CMM, CCSMM and NICE and concluded that all cyber security capability maturity models are based on cyber security risk management, but only SSE-CMM and C2M2 measure risk management in a more specific way.
Most of the maturity models on cyber security are essentially meant to measure the internal efficiency of cyber security organizations. The authors have not come across any research around linking this internal efficiency with business performance.
2.4 Management effectiveness
The authors have studied various research papers to understand the management effectiveness of cyber security performance. Most of the research are around Return on investment (Kanungo et al., 2011; Ababneh et al., 2017), key performance indicators (KPI) (Igor Bernik Kaja Prislan, 2016). Zaini et al. (2018) in their study believe that information security is vital in protecting information resources and should be used as strategic resources for competitive advantages as part of organizational objectives. Having secure strategic information resources allow organizations to be dynamic in the unpredictable business environment. Igor Bernik Kaja Prislan (2016) emphasized the need for measuring information security performance and its linkage to management effectiveness and proposed a 10 by 10 information security performance measurement model. The model—ISP 10 × 10 M is composed of ten critical success factors, 100 KPI and six performance levels.
2.5 Research gaps
Based on the above literature review, the following research gaps are inferred:
All the research papers studied by us on information security maturity models are essentially a CIP to increase the internal efficiency of cyber security organization.
The authors have not come across any research around linking the internal efficiency to the business requirement.
In fact, from the literature study, it is observed that overall, a gap in defining the parameters of internal efficiency and external effectiveness for cyber security.
The measurement of security performance in general and the development of security metrics itself are in a very early research stage and quite underdeveloped (Savola, 2009; Savola and Heinonen, 2011; Zalewski et al., 2014).
Essentially how to measure security and defense level of the organization are the gaps in research (Vaughn et al., 2003, Purboyo et al., 2011, Alavi et al., 2016).
The practice and process of measurement are also a gap in the research. (Abu-Musa, 2010; Sowa and Gabriel, 2009; Bayuk and Mostashari, 2013).
3. Significant learning and the statement of the research problem
From the literature study and the research gaps, the following significant learning and the problem statement are derived:
Cyber security performance management research is more related to the study of maturity models and security metrics.
Maturity models are essentially measuring the internal efficiency of the cyber security organization and not related to the contribution of cyber security to business.
Security metrics are more operational in nature and are essentially the key performance indicator (KPI) to measure the efficiency of cyber security organizations.
There is a need to look at cyber security performance from a business perspective, i.e. to understand the extent to which the efficiency of cyber security organization contributes to the business performance; which is the effectiveness of the cyber security performance. Thus, the first step to achieve this objective is to clearly define the factors of efficiency and effectiveness and then develop models to derive the impact of Internal efficiency factors on the factors of external effectiveness therefore there are two broad research objectives.
Construct the factors of internal efficiency and external effectiveness of cyber security.
Derive the impact of internal efficiency factors on the factors of external effectiveness.
4. Research phases
After defining the problem statements, the further research is carried out in two phases.
The objective, research methodology, techniques, sample selection and finding of each phase of the research are as below. The overall phase of research is depicted in Figure 2.
5. Phase 1
5.1 Objective – construct the factors of internal efficiency and external effectiveness of cyber security
5.1.1 Research methodology
Since there is not much evidence of research in defining the factors of internal efficiency and external effectiveness of cyber security, the authors have chosen grounded theory methodology (GTM) to derive the parameters.
5.2 Grounded theory methodology
The objective of GTM is to enable the discovery of inductive theory. As per Martin and Turner, 1986, “It helps researchers to develop a theoretical account of the general features of a topic while simultaneously grounding the account in empirical observations or data”. Although developed five decades ago, by Glaser and Strauss (1967) GTM continues to become one of the most frequently used qualitative research methods in social science research.
GTM is very relevant for research on issues where there are very less prior research and thus a need for theory building. (Lehmann 2010; Seidel and Urquhart, 2013). As discussed above, in the literature study section, not much work has been done in empirical validation of internal and external effectiveness of cyber security. GTM has been increasingly used in information system research to study technological change and sociotechnical behavior in emerging research domains (Birks et al., 2013; Matavire and Brown, 2013; Urquhart and Fernandez, 2006). GTM, with its espoused goal of theory development of unique issues, has now found broad application in information systems (IS) research (Wiesche et al., 2017).
There are two perspectives of grounded theory: objectivist and constructive. Objectivist grounded theory is a Glaserian approach and based on etic position, where the researcher takes an independent position as an outsider from the respondents. Whereas constructivist grounded theory is a Straussian approach and is based on emic position, where the researchers co-construct the data and behave as an insider with the respondents, without influencing the respondents. (Taghipour, 2014). In this study emic approach is followed and an algorithm is developed (Figure 2) for administering the grounded theory research process.
5.3 Grounded theory algorithm
The steps in the algorithm are used to administer GTM with a focus group comprising of cyber security and business professionals. The authors have used the systems approach in developing this algorithm. The systems approach to the problem solution is such an approach which understands the studied phenomena and processes in complex internal and external contexts, (Dettmer, 2007; Hubálovský and Milková, 2010). The process is discussed in the following section (see Figure 3).
5.4 Steps involved grounded theory algorithm
5.4.1 Formulation of research objectives
Objectives of this part of the study are as follows.
To find the most important factors that contribute to the efficiency of a cyber-security organization, which is referred as internal efficiency.
To find the most important factors of the business that can be affected by the efficiency of a cyber-security organization which is referred as external effectiveness.
5.4.2 Development of research questions (RQ)
For each objective three questions were designed which were used in the focused group discussion.
Objective 1 – To find the most important factors that contributes to internal efficiency of a cyber-security organization.
What are the areas you feel that are especially important to sustain a strong cyber security posture in an organization?
How do you measure the performance of cyber security in an organization?
What are the important areas that affect the performance of cyber security in an organization?
Objective 2 – To find the most important factors of the business that can be affected by the efficiency of a cyber security organization.
How do you determine the ROI on cyber security?
What is the expectation of business from cyber security?
What are the business parameters that can be affected by cyber security performance?
5.4.3 Sample selection
For this purpose, fifty professionals from five different business sectors and six various positions namely, oil and gas, telecom, banking and finance, retail, information technology and information technology enabled services (IT/ITES) were selected.
The positions held by the people at the time of discussion are: “Chief Information Security Officer (CISO”), “Chief Information Officer (CIO)”, “Chief Technology Officer (CTO)”, “Chief Finance Officer (CFO)”, subject matter expert (SME).
All these senior professionals were invited to an eight hours workshop for discussion; and were explained on the objective of this research. This was followed by three rounds of discussion of almost 2 h duration with the focused group.
5.4.4 Data analysis techniques
We have used the traditional abstraction and coding techniques of grounded theory to derive theory from the data.
Grounded theory coding is a kind of content analysis to find and conceptualize the core issues from within the huge pile of the data. Throughout the analysis of an interview, for example, the researcher will become conscious that the interviewee is using words and phrases that highlight an issue of importance or interest to the research. This is noted and described in a short phrase. This issue may be mentioned again in the same or similar words and is again noted (Moghaddam, 2006).
Three levels of abstractions of the discussions among the focused group were done using open code, axial code and finally selective code to derive the theory, i.e. factors of internal efficiency and factors of external effectiveness of cyber security.
5.4.4.1 Open coding
Open coding in grounded theory method is the analytic process by which concepts (codes) to the observed data and phenomenon are attached during qualitative data analysis. It is one of the “procedures” for working with text as characterized by Strauss (1987) and Corbin and Strauss (1990). Open coding aims at developing substantial codes describing, naming, or classifying the phenomenon under consideration. Open coding is achieved by segmenting data into meaningful expressions and describing them in single word to short sequence of words. Open codes have scopes for further abstractions to derive axial and selective codes.
The open codes derived above were then further abstracted to find the axial code and finally the selective code.
5.4.4.2 Axial coding
This is the second phase of ground theory analysis. The word “axial” used by Strauss and Corbin (1998) is intended to put an axis through data. This axis connects identified categories in open coding. Axial coding puts categories back together to explore theoretical possibilities. So, axial coding identifies causal relationships, context, intervening conditions to interconnect data. So, the outcome of axial coding is an approach toward the central phenomenon of the data.
5.4.4.3 Selective coding
This is the third stage of grounded theory analysis. In this phase, the researcher selects one central aspect of data as a core category or final category and put his or her concentration on it. The aim of selective coding is to integrate and pull together developing analysis. So, a core category will be developed as an emergent concept. This stage displays those categories where more data are essential, which denote more theoretical sampling. This stage is also called systematic densification and saturation of the theory. (Onwuegbuzie et al., 2009).
Formation of selective coding is based on axial coding. The framework of data analysis represents that selective coding is the last stage of qualitative data analysis.
5.4.5 Data analysis
Each question against each objective was discussed among the participants. The discussion was then abstracted to arrive at open code, axial code and finally the selective code.
While a sample of the analysis in deriving at the selective code for both objective 1 and 2 are mentioned in the Table 2, the entire analysis for each objective and against each question in Annexure 1.
Finally, from the above exercise of GTM the factors of internal efficiency and external effectiveness of cyber security are derived as below in Table 3.
6. Phase 2
6.1 Objective – developing model to identify the impact of internal efficiency factors on the external effectiveness of cyber security
After having constructed the factors of internal efficiency and external effectiveness, there is now scope to develop models to identify the impact of internal efficiency factors on the external effectiveness of cyber security. For this research paper, the following objectives are addressed.
To identify the most and least preferred parameters lead to internal efficiency of cyber security organization.
To identify the most and least preferred parameters of internal efficiency with respect to all the parameters external effectiveness.
6.2 Research design
In this study descriptive research design, and survey method is used. Accordingly, the questionnaire is developed and administered with designated sample/respondents.
6.3 Sampling framework
Purposive sampling was used to develop the sample of the current research. As per this sampling method sample members are selected based on their knowledge, skill and expertise regarding a research subject (Freedman, 2007). This is called non-probability sampling techniques. In the current study, the sample members are selected had based on their skill, expertise and relationship with the field cyber security and people from businesses who have expectation from cyber security.
The data collection method was online and by invitation only.
6.3.1 Structure of questionnaire
The questionnaire was divided into two parts, the first part collected data on internal efficiency and the second part on external effectiveness. Both the questionnaires were administered to the same set of respondents, together.
6.3.2 Internal consistency reliability
The internal reliability and consistency of the instrument is checked by using the “Cronbach’s alpha” test. The results show that the internal consistency was high and scores for all the questionnaire was 0.98:
6.3.3 Selection of sample respondents
The data is collected from the 216 professionals, comprising of cyber security practitioners, SMEs, and business leaders from a cross section of industries such as BFSI (banking, financial services and insurance, retail, telecom, oil and gas, health and life science. IT/ITES sector).
6.4 Analysis of data and results
The questionnaires which were administered among the respondents were made in ordinal scale. Participants were asked to rate the parameters in the range of 1 to 5 on their impact on the internal efficiency/external effectiveness of the cyber security organization. (1 is least impact and 5 is the maximum impact). As the intervals in the ordinal scale are not equal, we have chosen “Rank order” to analyze the data and find out the preferred parameters. Rank orders represent ordinal scales and are frequently used in research (Kothari C R 2004) relating to qualitative phenomena.
There are many examples of ranking data in an array of academic disciplines, including education (Acuna-Soto et al., 2021) psychology (Regenwetter and Rykhlevskaia, 2007), quality of life (Peiro-Palomino and Picazo-Tadeo, 2018), sociology (Harakawa and Iwahashi, 2021).
The breadth of these examples demonstrates the great utility of rankings as a tool for understanding human behavior and other scientific phenomena.
The data were analyzed with the following objectives in mind.
Objective 1 – To identify the most and least preferred parameters lead to internal efficiency of cyber security organization.
From the above Table 4, it is observed that the most preferred parameter of internal efficiency is legal and regulatory compliances followed by cyber risk management, cyber security skill, end user’s awareness, security architecture, appropriate and state of the art technology solutions, compromise management, cyber security governance, identity and access management, proactive monitoring of threat and vulnerability and vulnerability management.
Objective 2 – To identify the most and least preferred parameters of internal efficiency with respect to all the parameters external effectiveness.
Objective 2.1 – To identify the most and least preferred parameters of internal efficiency with respect to business continuity.
From Table 5, it is observed that, cyber risk management is the most impacted parameter with respect to business continuity followed by vulnerability management, appropriate and state of the art technology solution end user awareness, cyber security governance, identity and access management, compromise management, legal and regulatory compliance, security architecture and proactive monitoring of threat and vulnerability with respect to business continuity.
Objective 2.2 – To identify the most and least preferred parameters of internal efficiency with respect to regulatory and legal Compliance.
From Table 6, it is observed that legal and regulatory compliance internal is the most impacted parameters to regulatory and legal compliance external followed by cyber security governance, cyber risk management, compromise management, proactive monitoring of threat and vulnerability, vulnerability management, security architecture, end user awareness, identity and access management, appropriate and state of the art technology solution and cyber security skill.
Objective 2.3 – To identify the most and least preferred parameters of internal efficiency with respect to preventing data and IPR Loss.
From Table 7, it is observed that end user awareness and cyber risk management is most impacted parameters on preventing data and IPR loss followed by proactive monitoring of threat and vulnerability, vulnerability management, identity and access management, compromise management, security architecture, appropriate and state of the art technology solution, cyber security governance, legal and regulatory compliance and cyber security skill.
Objective 2.4 – To identify the most and least preferred parameters of internal efficiency with respect to facilitate digital transformation.
From Table 8, it is observed that cyber security skill is most impacted parameters on facilitate digital transformation followed by cyber risk management, identity and access management, security architecture, cyber security governance, appropriate and state of the art technology solution, legal and regulatory compliance, end user awareness, proactive monitoring of threat and vulnerability, vulnerability management and compromise management.
Objective 2.5 – To identify the most and least preferred parameters of internal efficiency with respect to cyber security awareness.
From Table 9, it is observed that end user awareness is most impacted parameters on cyber security awareness followed by cyber security governance, cyber security skill, security architecture, identity and access management, cyber risk management, proactive monitoring of threat and vulnerability, vulnerability management, legal and regulatory compliance, appropriate and state of the art technology solution and compromise management.
Objective 2.6 – To identify the most and least preferred parameters of internal efficiency with respect to brand value.
From Table 10, it is observed that, legal and regulatory compliance is the most preferred parameters with respect to brand value followed by compromise management, vulnerability management, proactive monitoring of threat and vulnerability, cyber risk management, cyber security governance internal, appropriate and state of the art technology solution, security architecture, cyber security skill, end user awareness and identity and access management.
Objective 2.7 – To identify the most and least preferred parameters of internal efficiency with respect to Customer acquisition.
From Table 11, it is observed that, end user awareness is the most preferred parameters with respect to customer acquisition followed by cyber risk management, security architecture, vulnerability management, cyber security governance internal, identity and access management, legal and regulatory compliance, compromise management, cyber security skill and proactive monitoring of threat and vulnerability.
Objective 2.8 – To identify the most and least preferred parameters of internal efficiency with respect to profit.
From Table 12, it is observed that legal and regulatory compliance is the most preferred with respect to profit followed by compromise management, proactive monitoring of threat and vulnerability, cyber risk management, cyber security governance internal, vulnerability management, appropriate and state of the art technology solution, security architecture, cyber security skill and end user awareness.
Objective 2.9 – To identify the most and least preferred parameters of internal efficiency with respect to security architecture.
From Table 13, it is observed that business continuity is the most preferred with respect to security architecture followed by preventing data and IPR loss; facilitate digital transformation, legal and regulatory compliance, cyber intelligent, brand value, customer acquisition, profit, revenue and cyber security awareness.
Objective 2.10 – To identify the most and least preferred parameters of internal efficiency with respect to revenue.
From Table 14, it is observed that legal and regulatory compliance is the most preferred with respect to revenue followed by cyber risk management, vulnerability management, compromise management, cyber security governance internal, proactive monitoring of threat and vulnerability, security architecture, identity and access management, appropriate and state of the art technology solution, cyber security skill and end user awareness.
Objective 2.11 – To identify the most and least preferred parameters of internal efficiency with respect to cyber intelligence.
From Table 15, it is observed that preventing data and IPR loss is the most preferred with respect to cyber intelligence followed by cyber security awareness, business continuity, revenue, cyber security governance internal, regulatory and legal compliance, cyber intelligence, profit, customer acquisition, facilitate digital transformation and brand value.
7. Discussion and major contribution to research literature
Consequent upon rapid digital transformation initiatives by corporations all over the globe, the attack surface has also increased manifold and cyber security risk is emerging as one of the prominent business risks. Performance evaluation of cyber security also has gained importance. From the literature review, it was evident that most of the research on cyber security performance are centered around security metrics, maturity, etc. Essentially, all these are helpful for evaluating the efficiency of a cyber security organization but what matters is how these factors of efficiency affect the business, i.e. external effectiveness, more importantly the integration. Thus, the first step to do further research on this is to derive the factors of internal efficiency and external effectiveness. Therefore, our effort in deriving these factors of efficiency and effectiveness is an innovative contribution and has multiple managerial and future research implications. The authors have further taken this research forward in developing model to identify the impact of internal efficiency factors on the external effectiveness of cyber security.
During literature study there is no evidence of research in the area of application of grounded theory approach in cyber security. Concrete and objective research on factors of internal efficiency and external effectiveness are also not found in the contemporary literature. This was a motivation for us, to use grounded theory and develop an algorithm to derive these factors. This is one of the pioneering, significant and unique research contributions. As per the literature review no researchers have ever tried to use this methodology for the stated purpose and cyber security domain in general.
The grounded theory algorithm developed by us can be used as a tool by future researchers to derive data/theory by using qualitative research methodology. The factors of internal efficiency and external effectiveness derived by us has tremendous scope for further research in doing various impact analysis and correlation among factors of internal efficiency (independent variable) and external effectiveness (dependent variable). Practitioners at the strategic level should focus on integrating internal efficiency and external effectiveness. Information security executives should take a close look at their policy statements, metrics/goals, resource allocation, training, management review processes, etc. and begin to integrate them. Integrating systems will encourage cross-functional collaboration. Lack of integration will cause confusion by employees, who struggle to align their tactical priorities with the company’s strategic objectives.
8. Concluding remark
The objective of the research is to contribute to the body of knowledge of cyber security governance and extend threads for the future researchers and practitioners in the area of cyber security. Construction of factors of internal efficiency and external effectiveness of cyber security and developing impact models are major contributions to the body of knowledge. Some of the interesting findings of this research which have significance for further research and also implications to the practitioners are as below.
The most preferred parameter of internal efficiency is legal and regulatory compliances followed by cyber risk management. Cyber risk management is the most impacted parameter with respect to business continuity followed by vulnerability management. Cyber security skill is found to be the most impacted parameters on facilitate digital transformation followed by cyber risk management. End user awareness is found to be the most impacted parameters on cyber security governance followed by cyber security skill. Legal and regulatory compliance is the most impacted parameters with respect to brand value followed by compromise management. End user awareness is the most impacted parameters with respect to customer acquisition followed by cyber risk management. Legal and regulatory compliance is again the most impacted parameter with respect to profit followed by compromise management. Business continuity is the most impacted parameter with respect to security architecture followed by preventing data and IPR loss. Legal and regulatory compliance is again the most impacted parameter with respect to revenue followed by cyber risk management and preventing data and IPR loss is the most impacted parameter with respect to cyber intelligence followed by cyber security awareness.
The sample size for both constructing the factors of internal efficiency, external effectiveness and developing the impact models although adequate but it contains only respondent from India. A global sample could have made a difference but considering the growth of IT and its application in business in India, we do not expect a much variation in the result.
The factors of internal efficiency and external effectiveness constructed by using grounded theory cannot remain constant in the long run, because of dynamism of the domain itself.
Over and above this, there are inherent limitations of the tools like grounded theory, used in the research. Few important limitations of GTM are as below.
In grounded theory, it is comparatively difficult to maintain and demonstrate the rigors of research discipline. The sheer volume of data makes the analysis and interpretation complex, and lengthy time consuming. The researchers’ presence during data gathering, which is often unavoidable and desirable too in qualitative research, may affect the subjects’ responses.
The subjectivity of the data leads to difficulties in establishing reliability and validity of approaches and information. It is difficult to detect or to prevent researcher-induced bias.
However, the choice of GTM is our conscious and judicious decision as sufficient data in the research literature were found on factors of internal efficiency and external effectiveness of cyber security. We were indeed very conscious about these short comings during our data collection and cross-checked the emerging concepts against participants’ meanings, asking experts if the theory “fit” their experiences in the second phase of our research while developing models/impact factors by using these variables.
In this research an impact model is formulated on the effect of factors of internal efficiency with the factor of external effectiveness. This analysis can be used by the future researchers for the following purposes.
The results of the analysis have implications for further research in validation and developing model for industry segment and also on a cross industry comparison.
Researchers also can-do various correlation among the factors of internal efficiency and External effectiveness to infer different dimensions.
Figures
Research on cyber security performance management
Abstraction of open code – axial code – selective code – sample analysis
Abstract of participant’s expressions | Open code | Axial code | Selective code |
---|---|---|---|
Management intent for a strong cyber security posture, involvement of business stakeholders, regular top management reporting, strong policy and procedures; audit, assurance and compliance management Timely patching Well configured firewall CIP Incident response Latest tool and technologies Governance Patch management Roles and responsibilities, segregation of duties, management oversight; dashboard, Reporting Lack of Skill Skill | Strong governance Mechanism, Governance Mechanism, Security budget, CIP, metrics; maturity model | Cyber security Governance | Internal efficiency |
Directly proportional to security breaches, breach will result into business disruption and then loss. Already happened in many companies. No business Interruption due to cyber-attack. No business loss. No down time. Loss of IPR will affect the competitiveness. Strong security for protection of IPR | No business interruption assurance to Business regarding CIA (confidentiality, integrity, and availability) of information business continuity no business disruption | Business continuity | External efficiency |
Factors of internal efficiency and external effectiveness
Factors of internal efficiency (independent variable) | External effectiveness (dependent variable) |
---|---|
Cyber security governance Cyber risk management Vulnerability management Compromise management Identity and access management Proactive monitoring of threat and vulnerability End user awareness Legal and regulatory compliance Appropriate and state of the art security technology solution Security architecture Cyber security skill | Business continuity Regulatory and legal compliance Preventing data and IPR loss Facilitate digital transformation Cyber security awareness Brand value Customer acquisition Profit Revenue Cyber intelligence |
Most and least preferred parameters lead to internal efficiency of cyber security organization
Parameters of internal efficiency | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | Rank order |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Cyber security governance | 0 | 0 | 14 | 102 | 107 | 985 |
Cyber risk management | 0 | 0 | 5 | 90 | 128 | 1,015 |
Vulnerability management | 0 | 0 | 11 | 29 | 133 | 814 |
Compromise management | 2 | 0 | 19 | 77 | 125 | 992 |
Identity and access management | 1 | 0 | 19 | 103 | 100 | 970 |
Proactive monitoring of threat and vulnerability | 0 | 0 | 11 | 35 | 147 | 908 |
End user awareness | 0 | 0 | 26 | 59 | 138 | 1,004 |
Legal and regulatory compliance | 0 | 0 | 18 | 59 | 146 | 1,020 |
Appropriate and state of the art technology solution | 4 | 0 | 15 | 76 | 128 | 993 |
Security architecture | 2 | 1 | 10 | 88 | 122 | 996 |
Cyber security skill | 0 | 0 | 14 | 73 | 136 | 1,014 |
Business continuity with all the parameters of internal efficiency
Business continuity with all the parameters of internal efficiency | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Factors | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | Rank order |
Business continuity_cyber security governance | 0 | 0 | 48 | 128 | 40 | 856 |
Business continuity_cyber risk management | 0 | 0 | 38 | 89 | 89 | 915 |
Business continuity_vulnerability management | 0 | 3 | 45 | 110 | 58 | 871 |
Business continuity_compromise management | 0 | 7 | 71 | 100 | 38 | 817 |
Business continuity_identity and access management | 0 | 7 | 59 | 96 | 54 | 845 |
Business continuity_proactive monitoring of threat and vulnerability | 9 | 37 | 55 | 84 | 31 | 739 |
Business continuity_end user awareness | 4 | 12 | 52 | 62 | 86 | 862 |
Business continuity_legal and regulatory compliance | 4 | 9 | 62 | 103 | 38 | 810 |
Business continuity_appropriate and state of the art technology solution | 4 | 0 | 42 | 113 | 57 | 867 |
Business continuity_security architecture | 0 | 33 | 63 | 82 | 38 | 773 |
“Regulatory and legal compliance” with all the parameter of internal efficiency
Factors | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | Rank order |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Regulatory and legal compliance_cyber security governance | 0 | 0 | 46 | 114 | 56 | 874 |
Regulatory and legal compliance_cyber risk management | 0 | 9 | 45 | 90 | 72 | 873 |
Regulatory and legal compliance_vulnerability management | 0 | 7 | 81 | 88 | 40 | 809 |
Regulatory and legal compliance_compromise management | 4 | 8 | 42 | 96 | 66 | 860 |
Regulatory and legal compliance_identity and access management | 4 | 28 | 76 | 72 | 38 | 766 |
Regulatory and legal compliance_proactive monitoring of threat and vulnerability | 4 | 8 | 63 | 104 | 37 | 810 |
Regulatory and legal compliance_end user awareness | 13 | 27 | 47 | 77 | 52 | 776 |
Regulatory and legal compliance external_legal and regulatory compliance internal | 7 | 0 | 54 | 34 | 121 | 910 |
Regulatory and legal compliance_appropriate and state of the art technology solution | 17 | 20 | 49 | 93 | 37 | 761 |
Regulatory and legal compliance_security architecture | 4 | 15 | 58 | 112 | 27 | 791 |
Regulatory and legal compliance_cyber security skill | 6 | 34 | 78 | 57 | 41 | 741 |
“Preventing data and IPR loss” with all the parameters of internal efficiency
Preventing data and IPR loss with all the parameters of internal efficiency | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Factors | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | Rank order |
Preventing data and IPR loss_cyber security governance | 0 | 15 | 60 | 122 | 19 | 793 |
Preventing data and IPR loss_cyber risk management | 0 | 0 | 47 | 97 | 72 | 889 |
Preventing data and IPR loss_vulnerability management | 0 | 7 | 51 | 101 | 57 | 856 |
Preventing data and IPR loss_compromise management | 4 | 4 | 75 | 60 | 73 | 842 |
Preventing data and IPR loss_identity and access management | 4 | 0 | 53 | 112 | 47 | 846 |
Preventing data and IPR loss_proactive monitoring of threat and vulnerability | 0 | 0 | 47 | 105 | 64 | 881 |
Preventing data and IPR loss_end user awareness | 0 | 9 | 43 | 78 | 86 | 889 |
Preventing data and IPR loss_legal and regulatory compliance | 13 | 32 | 54 | 62 | 55 | 762 |
Preventing data and IPR loss_appropriate and state of the art technology solution | 4 | 9 | 68 | 105 | 30 | 796 |
Preventing data and IPR loss_security architecture | 4 | 4 | 70 | 98 | 40 | 814 |
Preventing data and IPR loss_cyber security skill | 18 | 15 | 74 | 69 | 40 | 746 |
“Facilitate digital transformation” with all the parameters of Internal efficiency
Facilitate digital transformation with all the parameters of internal efficiency | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Factors | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | Rank order |
Facilitate digital transformation_cyber security governance | 0 | 3 | 40 | 121 | 52 | 870 |
Facilitate digital transformation_cyber risk management | 0 | 11 | 46 | 68 | 91 | 887 |
Facilitate digital transformation_vulnerability management | 0 | 7 | 68 | 86 | 55 | 837 |
Facilitate digital transformation_compromise management | 0 | 24 | 85 | 95 | 12 | 743 |
Facilitate digital transformation_identity and access management | 0 | 7 | 45 | 89 | 75 | 880 |
Facilitate digital transformation_proactive monitoring of threat and vulnerability | 0 | 7 | 56 | 103 | 50 | 844 |
Facilitate digital transformation_end user awareness | 0 | 20 | 44 | 86 | 66 | 846 |
Facilitate digital transformation_legal and regulatory compliance | 0 | 14 | 61 | 72 | 69 | 844 |
Facilitate digital transformation_appropriate and state of the art technology solution | 0 | 11 | 43 | 111 | 51 | 850 |
Facilitate digital transformation_security architecture | 0 | 7 | 58 | 90 | 61 | 853 |
Facilitate digital transformation_cyber security skill | 0 | 7 | 36 | 75 | 98 | 912 |
“Cyber security awareness” with all the parameters of internal efficiency
Cyber security awareness with all the parameters of internal efficiency | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Factors | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | Rank order |
Cyber security awareness_cyber security governance internal | 0 | 3 | 38 | 92 | 83 | 903 |
Cyber security awareness_cyber risk management | 6 | 35 | 56 | 64 | 55 | 775 |
Cyber security awareness_vulnerability management | 16 | 35 | 36 | 74 | 55 | 765 |
Cyber security awareness_compromise management | 25 | 29 | 75 | 66 | 21 | 677 |
Cyber security awareness_identity and access management | 4 | 6 | 82 | 93 | 31 | 789 |
Cybe rsecurity awareness_proactive monitoring of threat and vulnerability | 4 | 39 | 40 | 93 | 40 | 774 |
Cyber security awareness_end user awareness | 0 | 0 | 34 | 65 | 117 | 947 |
Cyber security awareness_legal and regulatory compliance | 3 | 48 | 50 | 68 | 47 | 756 |
Cyber security awareness_appropriate and state of the art technology solution | 21 | 32 | 52 | 81 | 30 | 715 |
Cyber security awareness_security architecture | 0 | 29 | 70 | 60 | 57 | 793 |
Cyber security awareness_cyber security skill | 0 | 7 | 49 | 91 | 69 | 870 |
Brand value with all the parameters of internal efficiency
Brand value with all the parameters of internal efficiency | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Factors | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | Rank order |
Brand value_cyber security governance internal | 8 | 2 | 50 | 109 | 47 | 833 |
Brand value_cyber risk management | 8 | 8 | 40 | 87 | 73 | 857 |
Brand value_vulnerability management | 8 | 2 | 37 | 88 | 81 | 880 |
Brand value_compromise management | 8 | 2 | 41 | 57 | 108 | 903 |
Brand value_identity and access management | 8 | 9 | 100 | 75 | 24 | 746 |
Brand value_proactive monitoring of threat and vulnerability | 0 | 10 | 35 | 108 | 63 | 872 |
Brand value_end user awareness | 8 | 37 | 67 | 39 | 65 | 764 |
Brand value_legal and regulatory compliance | 0 | 13 | 32 | 69 | 102 | 908 |
Brand value_appropriate and state of the art technology solution | 4 | 19 | 71 | 73 | 49 | 792 |
Brand value_security architecture | 4 | 12 | 64 | 113 | 23 | 787 |
Brand value_cyber security skill | 8 | 29 | 63 | 67 | 49 | 768 |
“Customer acquisition” with all the parameters of Internal efficiency
Customer acquisition with all the parameters of internal efficiency | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Factors | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | Rank order |
Customer acquisition_cyber security governance internal | 6 | 13 | 44 | 118 | 35 | 811 |
Customer acquisition_cyber risk management | 6 | 4 | 60 | 102 | 44 | 822 |
Customer acquisition_vulnerability management | 10 | 8 | 50 | 105 | 43 | 811 |
Customer acquisition_compromise management | 7 | 18 | 80 | 68 | 43 | 770 |
Customer acquisition_identity and access management | 10 | 4 | 59 | 108 | 35 | 802 |
Customer acquisition_proactive monitoring of threat and vulnerability | 17 | 30 | 71 | 50 | 48 | 730 |
Customer acquisition_end user awareness | 6 | 3 | 47 | 68 | 92 | 885 |
Customer acquisition_legal and regulatory compliance | 13 | 29 | 45 | 71 | 58 | 780 |
Customer acquisition_appropriate and state of the art technology solution | 10 | 14 | 47 | 90 | 55 | 814 |
Customer acquisition_security architecture | 10 | 14 | 47 | 90 | 55 | 814 |
Customer acquisition_cyber security skill | 16 | 24 | 74 | 53 | 49 | 743 |
“Profit” with all the parameters of internal efficiency
Profit with all the parameters of internal efficiency | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Factors | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | Rank order |
Profit_cyber security governance internal | 6 | 22 | 54 | 101 | 33 | 781 |
Profit_cyber risk management | 6 | 13 | 65 | 84 | 48 | 803 |
Profit_vulnerability management | 6 | 14 | 91 | 56 | 49 | 776 |
Profit_compromise management | 6 | 13 | 49 | 105 | 43 | 814 |
Profit_identity and access management | 14 | 25 | 65 | 68 | 44 | 751 |
Profit_proactive monitoring of threat and vulnerability | 10 | 16 | 39 | 101 | 50 | 813 |
Profit_end user awareness | 31 | 27 | 44 | 61 | 53 | 726 |
Profit_legal and regulatory compliance | 10 | 9 | 46 | 76 | 75 | 845 |
Profit_appropriate and state of the art technology solution | 11 | 29 | 65 | 60 | 51 | 759 |
Profit_security architecture | 10 | 30 | 67 | 71 | 38 | 745 |
Profit_cyber security skill | 23 | 22 | 46 | 85 | 40 | 745 |
“Security architecture” with all the parameters of internal efficiency
Security architecture with all the parameters of internal efficiency | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Factors | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | Rank order |
Security architecture_business continuity | 1 | 15 | 35 | 81 | 91 | 915 |
Security architecture_regulatory and legal compliance | 14 | 44 | 58 | 98 | 9 | 713 |
Security architecture_preventing data and IPR loss | 0 | 0 | 177 | 28 | 18 | 733 |
Security architecture_facilitate digital transformation | 0 | 1 | 183 | 26 | 13 | 720 |
Security architecture_cybersecurity awareness | 13 | 12 | 187 | 10 | 1 | 643 |
Security architecture_brand value | 1 | 10 | 187 | 25 | 0 | 682 |
Security architecture_customer acquisition | 2 | 12 | 188 | 20 | 1 | 675 |
Security architecture_profit | 7 | 12 | 191 | 0 | 13 | 669 |
Security architecture_revenue | 8 | 11 | 187 | 16 | 1 | 660 |
Security architecture_cyber intelligence | 0 | 3 | 184 | 28 | 8 | 710 |
“Revenue” with all the parameters of internal efficiency
Revenue with all the parameters of internal efficiency | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Factors | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | Rank order |
Revenue_cyber security governance internal | 6 | 27 | 32 | 126 | 25 | 785 |
Revenue_cyber risk management | 10 | 12 | 68 | 69 | 57 | 799 |
Revenue_vulnerability management | 6 | 15 | 69 | 82 | 44 | 791 |
Revenue_compromise management | 6 | 17 | 54 | 108 | 31 | 789 |
Revenue_identity and access management | 10 | 23 | 55 | 102 | 26 | 759 |
Revenue_proactive monitoring of threat and vulnerability | 2 | 17 | 69 | 111 | 17 | 772 |
Revenue_end user awareness | 30 | 26 | 47 | 76 | 37 | 712 |
Revenue_legal and regulatory compliance | 10 | 12 | 28 | 119 | 47 | 829 |
Revenue_appropriate and state of the art technology solution | 10 | 26 | 53 | 102 | 25 | 754 |
Revenue_security architecture | 6 | 32 | 64 | 63 | 51 | 769 |
Revenue_cyber security skill | 14 | 36 | 54 | 89 | 23 | 719 |
“Cyber intelligence” with all the parameters of internal efficiency
Cyber intelligence with all the parameters of internal efficiency | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Factors | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | Rank order |
Cyber intelligence_cyber security governance internal | 0 | 6 | 43 | 140 | 27 | 836 |
Cyber intelligence_business continuity | 0 | 3 | 54 | 93 | 66 | 870 |
Cyber intelligence_regulatory and legal compliance | 0 | 0 | 73 | 99 | 44 | 835 |
Cyber intelligence_preventing data and IPR loss | 0 | 3 | 24 | 77 | 112 | 946 |
Cyber intelligence_facilitate digital transformation | 0 | 26 | 98 | 67 | 25 | 739 |
Cyber intelligence_cybersecurity awareness | 0 | 4 | 32 | 113 | 67 | 891 |
Cyber intelligence_brand value | 14 | 34 | 74 | 45 | 49 | 729 |
Cyber intelligence_customer acquisition | 10 | 26 | 64 | 71 | 45 | 763 |
Cyber intelligence_profit | 0 | 21 | 67 | 92 | 36 | 791 |
Cyber intelligence_revenue | 0 | 6 | 62 | 96 | 52 | 842 |
Cyber intelligence_cyber intelligence | 0 | 16 | 56 | 91 | 53 | 829 |
Abstraction of open code – Objective 1 – Q1
Open code | Properties | Abstract of participant’s expressions |
---|---|---|
Strong governance mechanism | Management oversight, reporting, policy and procedures | Management intent for a strong cyber security posture, involvement of business stakeholders, regular top management reporting, strong policy and procedures; audit, assurance and compliance management Timely patching Well configured firewall CIP Incident response Latest tool and technologies Governance Patch management |
Strong risk management practice | Part of overall enterprise risk management, risk based control implementation | Cyber security to be part of overall business risk management portfolio, cyber risk management practices to be in place, key risk and performance indicator. Risk management standard; vendor risk management, cyber insurance |
Vulnerability management | Continuously looking at the material weaknesses of the system and applications | A strong vulnerability management program across the enterprise. Correlation of threat and vulnerability to find the material vulnerability, vulnerability management of all the information assets |
Compromise management | Continuously looking at whether there is any stealth compromise in the enterprise | Regular and perpetual threat hunting to find slow and steady attacks and compromise |
Business continuity | Information system resiliency | Recovery time objective, recovery point objective, regular business impact analysis |
Secured network configuration | Network security and configuration management | Minimum base line security for all network components, secured network architecture, wireless security and access control |
Identity and access management | Identification, authentication and authorization | Strong identification and authentication, authorization, federation and single sign on |
System/end point security | Strong security Implementation in servers and endpoints | Anti-virus, anti-malware, endpoint detection and response (EDR), configuration management, patch management and minimum baseline security standard |
Proactive monitoring | Continuous monitoring of threat, vulnerability and security posture | SIEM (security information and event management), 24/7 security operation center and security intelligence |
End user awareness | Cyber security awareness to all the stakeholders | Cyber security awareness is the key, insider threats, human firewall, awareness to all the stakeholders including the third-party service providers, end user awareness on Do’s and Don’ts, data classification, awareness to vendors and workforce development for OT |
Continuous improvement program | Maturity models | Operation management system for cyber security, set as-is and to-be state based on maturity models, and have projects to achieve the target state. Global benchmarking, continuous assessment and monitoring |
Security solutions | Tools and techniques | Tools and techniques, state of the art technology solution. New generation security solutions |
Security architecture | Security architecture | Proper architecture, cloud and big data security, security at the design stage |
Cyber security skill | Hire and retain good cyber security professionals | Good cyber security professionals, cyber security skill linked with new generation threats, hire and retain good talent |
Abstraction of open code – Objective 1 – Q2
Open code | Properties | Example of participant’s word |
---|---|---|
Maturity model | Continuous improvement program | CIP program. As is and to be analysis, strong OMS (operation management standard, benchmarked maturity model) |
Metrics | Cyber security metrics | MTTR, MTTD, number of incidents reduced, phishing exercise |
Compliance | Legal and regulatory compliance | Benchmarking, security policy violation. reduction of non-compliances |
Cyber drill | Strong response mechanism | Cyber response, regular cyber-drill, red team exercise |
Abstraction of open code – Objective 1 – Q3
Open code | Properties | Example of participant’s word |
---|---|---|
Governance mechanism | Roles and responsibilities. management support, oversight | Roles and responsibilities, segregation of duties, management oversight; dashboard, reporting lack of skill Skill |
Cyber defense | Orchestration, incident management | Orchestration; strong response mechanism; incident management |
Security budget | Tools and techniques, budget, business support | Support from business Tools and techniques Budget |
Cyber security skill | Cyber security skill | Lack of skill, training, re-skilling |
Cyber security technology solutions | Tools and techniques | State of the art security solutions, preventing and detecting controls |
Technology security architecture | Security architecture | Lack of proper security architecture, security is an after thought |
Appropriate cyber security skill | Cyber security skill | Attrition, not able to hire and retain skills, training and re-skilling |
Derivation of selective code from open code and axial code
Open code | Axial code | Selective code |
---|---|---|
Strong governance mechanism, governance mechanism, security budget, CIP, metrics; maturity model | Cyber security governance | Internal efficiency of cyber security organization |
Strong risk management practice, business continuity | Cyber risk management | |
Vulnerability management, secured network configuration, system/end point security | Vulnerability management | |
Compromise management, cyber defense | Compromise management | |
Identity and access management | Identity and access Management | |
Proactive monitoring, cyber defense | Proactive monitoring of threat and vulnerability | |
End user awareness | End user awareness | |
Compliance | Legal and regulatory compliance | |
Security solutions, cyber security technology solutions | Appropriate and state of the art security technology solution | |
Security architecture, technology security architecture | Security architecture | |
Cyber security skill, Appropriate cyber security skill | Cyber security skill |
Abstraction of open code – Objective 2 - Q1
Open code | Properties | Example of participant’s word |
---|---|---|
Reduction of security breaches | Security breach mitigation | Directly proportional to security breaches, breach will result into business disruption and then loss. Already happened in many companies |
Smooth and fast digital transformation | Adoption of newer technology to combat new generation threats and help digital transformation | Brake in the car. Business can run fast. Transformation becomes smooth. No cyber threats for digital transformation. Technology enablement of business processes will increase efficiency and hence the bottom line |
Not quantifiable | Not quantifiable | ROI in security is a misnomer. No direct impact. Very difficult |
No business disruption | Prevent business disruption due to cyber attack | Strong cyber security helps preventing business disruption due to cyber-attack. Directly related to bottom line |
Better customer acquisition | Strong security helps customer acquisition | Strong security helps customer acquisition. Breaches negatively affect. Customer acquisition will positively affect bottom line |
Better valuation | Brand differentiator | Strong security is a brand differentiator. Better brand better valuation |
Prevent reputation loss | Security breaches will affect reputation | Security breaches will affect reputation. Reputation loss erodes valuation, customer acquisition. Non-compliance, lawsuits following security breaches affect the bottom-line |
Abstraction of open code – Objective 2 – Q2
Open code | Properties | Example of participant’s word |
---|---|---|
No business interruption | Business interruption due to cyber attack | No business Interruption due to cyber-attack. No business loss. No down time |
Have cyber intelligence | Proactive monitoring of threat | Preventing threat, proactive monitoring, threat prediction and proactive action and proactive intelligence |
Ensure compliance | Compliances to laws and regulations | Compliance to all laws and regulation. Contractual compliance, no non- compliances |
Preventing data and IPR loss | Data and IPR loss prevention | Prevent leakage of confidential Information and IPR. Data loss |
Facilitate digital transformation | Support to new business initiatives using smart technology | Smart technology brings new threats; Good cyber security enables faster adoption. Security should not be the showstopper |
Assurance to business regarding CIA (confidentiality, integrity and availability) of Information | Assurance to business regarding CIA of information | Ensure confidentiality, integrity and availability. Assurance to the management |
All users should be made aware of requirements of cyber security | Cyber security awareness | Cyber security awareness should spread across all the users. Third party and contractors also should be to give cyber security awareness training. Internal threat very important |
Abstraction of open code – Objective 2 – Q3
Open code | Properties | Example of participant words |
---|---|---|
Intellectual property rights (IPR) | Security of company patents and invention | Loss of IPR will affect the competitiveness. Strong security for protection of IPR |
Corporate secrets | Security of company secret and confidential information | Protection of confidential information. Loss of company secrets will lead to business loss; data loss prevention |
Reputation | Company good will and reputation are the greatest assets and needs to be protected | Cyber-attack leads to loss of confidence, loss of credibility |
Compliance status: legal and regulatory | Legal and regulatory compliance | Legal compliance, regulatory compliance, contractual compliance. Noncompliance leads to serious complication. Company may be out of business |
Brand value | Cyber security posture – a brand differentiators | Customer and stakeholder’s confidence, strong security creates a brand value. Brand value generate profits |
Profit | Cyber-attack leads to business disruption | Cyber-attack leads to business disruption, denial of services |
Customer’s acquisition | Cyber breaches erode customer’s confidence | Cyber breaches erode customer’s confidence. Customer centric companies like banks. Telecom, customer acquisition will be hugely affected |
Privacy | Protection of personally identifiable information (PII) and SPDI (sensitive personal data or information) | Protection of privacy. Privacy breaches have broader legal and regulatory ramifications. Good security protects PII and SPDI |
Opportunity | Opportunity loss due to cyber-attack and the consequent loss of sensitive information | Loss of sensitive data like business plan, strategy, IPR, etc. due to cyber-attack may lead to opportunity loss. May affect the bottom line too |
Valuation | Cyber-attack erodes company valuation | Company valuation will be affected because of cyber-attack. Yahoo is the example |
Revenue | Loss of revenue due to cyber breach | Cyber-attack leads to business interruption, loss of opportunity, loss of customers and hence loss of revenue |
Production | Cyber-attack leads to production loss | Production will affect because of business interruption due to cyber attack |
Awareness | Poor cyber security is directly related low level of awareness | Poor cyber security is directly related low level of awareness among stakeholders. Awareness is the key to success |
Business continuity | Business continuity | Business is IT enabled. In case of disaster IT is required for business continuity. Availability is another requirement for information security. Business impact analysis |
Open code, axial code and selective code – Objective 2
Open code | Axial code | Selective code |
---|---|---|
No business interruption assurance to business regarding CIA (confidentiality, integrity and availability) of information business continuity no business disruption | Business continuity | External efficiency |
Compliance status legal and regulatory ensure compliance privacy | Regulatory and legal compliance | |
Intellectual property rights (IPR) corporate secrets preventing data and IPR loss | Preventing data and IPR Loss | |
Facilitate digital transformation smooth and fast digital transformation | Facilitate digital transformation | |
All users should be made aware of requirements of cyber security Awareness | Cyber security awareness | |
Reputation Brand value Prevent reputation loss Valuation Better valuation | Brand value | |
Customer’s acquisition Better customer acquisition | Customer acquisition | |
Opportunity Profit | Profit | |
Revenue Production | Revenue | |
Have cyber intelligence Reduction of security breaches | Cyber intelligence |
Analysis for each objective and against each question in arriving at open code, axial code and selective code
Objective 1 – Q1. What are the areas you feel that are very important to sustain a strong cyber security posture in an organization?
Objective 1 – Q2. How do you measure the performance of cyber security in an organization?
In the same way here also, the authors have abstracted the participant’s discussion to derive open code as per Table A2 below.
Objective 1 – Q3. What are the important areas that affect the performance of cyber security in an organization?
The same exercise was also done for the following three questions for objective 2.
How do you determine the ROI on cyber security?
What is the expectation of business from cyber security?
What are the business parameters that can be affected by cyber security performance?
Objective 2- Q1-How do you determine the ROI on cyber security?
The discussion with the focused group is abstracted below in Tables A5–A7.
Objective 2 – Q2. What is the expectation of business from cyber security?
Objective 2 – Q3. What are the business parameters that can be affected by cyber security performance?
Derivation of selective code from open code and axial code
The open codes derived above were then further abstracted to find the axial code and finally the selective code. The results of this abstraction are shown in Table A8.
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Further reading
Authors, available at: https://csrc.nist.gov/publications/detail/sp/800-55/rev-1/final
CMM (2014), Cyber Security Capability Maturity Model (CMM) - V1.2, Global Cyber Security Capacity, Centre University of Oxford, available at: https://www.sbs.ox.ac.uk/cybersecurity-capacity/system/files/CMM%20Version%201_2_0.pdf (accessed 10 December 2017).
Peter, W. and Ross, J.W. (2004), IT Governance: How Top Performers Manage IT Decision Rights for Superior Results by Peter Weill and Jeanne W, Harvard Business School Press Boston, Ross Boston, 1-59139-253-5.
World Economic Forum–Global Risk Report (2021), (weforum.org), available at: WEF_The_Global_Risks_Report_2021.pdf