Rural poverty characteristics in Kokap Sub-District, Special Region of Yogyakarta Province

Rural poverty is still a major problem for regional development in Indonesia. Kecamatan Kokap (district) in Kabupaten Kulon Progo, which is part of the Strategic Region for the New Yogyakarta International Airport (NYIA), is a rural area that has the highest rate of poverty inKulon Progo. In fact, the development of NYIA and its strategic regional development plan will transform conditions and the main activities from a rural setting to more urban and agricultural activities into non-agricultural activities. This study aims to investigate the characteristics of rural poverty in Kokap using the deprivation trap of poverty, a framework that describes rural poverty as a multi dimensional condition. The study uses a quantitative approach and employs interviews directed via questionnaires with poor households in Kokap as the respondents. The sampling technique used is probability sampling with incidental sampling, in addition to descriptive statistical analysis techniques. The results show that rural poverty in Kokap Sub-district is a complex phenomenon that is strongly influenced by the regional conditions where the poor families live. This is a key finding in formulating strategies to prevent poor rural communities to be caught in a poverty trap amid significant changes that will occur in thearea.


Introduction
Poverty is still a major issue, especially in the developing world, which is evident in rural poverty. In absolute terms, the number of poor people in Indonesia is still high, namely 25.95 million people, 61.32% of which reside in rural areas [1]. Therefore, rural poverty is a major national development problem in Indonesia today. However, rural poverty does not receive the required attention [2]. This is because the characteristics of rural poverty are less known than urban poverty in research, academic publications, media and policy interventions [3]. This underlines the need to understand the characteristics of rural poverty since most efforts of poverty alleviation have focused on the urban poor. Meanwhile, rural communities are increasingly trapped, isolated and severely neglected [4]. Rural poverty is not merely a simple phenomenon that has a common definition and approach. Poverty itself has many dimensions; as such, it is difficult to explain it through the economic dimension alone, e.g., income and expenditure. Rather, it needs to be understood comprehensively.
Rural poverty is often concentrated in remote areas, like mountains with hard to reach terrain, islands far from urban areas, forested areas, and arid regions with low populations [5]. Intrinsically, poverty is not only a condition of low income and the inability to meet basic needs. It also includes several non-economic conditions such as low access to public services, infrastructure, natural ICoPS2019 IOP Conf. Series: Earth and Environmental Science 447 (2020) 012060 IOP Publishing doi:10.1088/1755-1315/447/1/012060 2 resources, low education, and malnutrition [6]. Most chronically poor people live in remote rural areas, as they tend to be physically far from the center of economic activity, urban agglomerations, and the center of government and communication [7]. Therefore, rural poverty could be seen as a condition called the "Deprivation Trap", as their situation is very complex and is influenced by several interrelated aspects. Thus, without dealing with these aspects, the rural poor could sink even deeper into the circle of poverty [4]. In other words, the poor must be able to overcome all mutually affecting conditions to escape poverty [6]. The concept of the "Deprivation Trap" seeks to describe the conditions of rural poverty comprehensively. This is through identifying the rural poor communities' experiences in five interrelated dimensions that cause a poverty trap and hinder life opportunities for poor families, i.e., financial weakness, physical weakness, isolation, vulnerability, and powerlessness [4].
DIY Province (Yogyakarta Special Region) is the region with the highest poverty rate (13.1%) on Java Island in 2016. According to the 2016 National Socio-Economic Survey, Kulon Progo Regency has the highest poverty rate (20.3%) from all regencies and cities in DIY. The regional characteristic of Kulon Progo is dominated by rural areas, with most of its population working in the agricultural sector. Meanwhile, Kokap has the highest poverty rate in Kulon Progo. In 2015, 4381 of a total of 9,139 households in the sub-district was considered poor. This number increased to 5101 households in 2017. In the context of the Deprivation Trap, the increasing number of poor households in Kokap could indicate the existence of poverty traps.
Currently, the New Yogyakarta International Airport (NYIA) is developed in Temon Sub-district, Kulon Progo Regency, which borders Kokap. This airport is planned to replace the existing international airport in the City of Yogyakarta. Moreover, the development of the new airport involves the formulation of Airport Strategic Area Development Plans that also cover Kokap area. Based on the 2017 Transit Oriented Development Master Plan for the NYIA Airport Strategic Area, Kokap is planned to be one of the urban areas of Kulon Progo Regency functioning as part of the strategic area besides being a buffer area for the NYIA. Thus, in the near future, the area will experience a significant change from a rural agricultural setting to an urban area.
This paper aims to investigate the poverty characteristics faced by the people in Kokap which will experience rural-urban transformation. This will provide important inputs for the formulation of poverty alleviation strategies in Kokap since the current situation could be considered as an environmental trap for the rural poor. The changing environment could potentially trap Kokap's poor rural farmer since the impact of the new airport development would result in a rural-urban transformation. Whereas, the farmers' current occupational capabilities and skills are incompatible with those needed to survive in urban areas. This means that they face two trapping conditions, i.e., the present poverty trap and future environmental trap. Therefore, this study could provide important insight for poverty alleviation strategies, involving adaptation strategies for the poor which could help them to adjust to significant changes and a new condition in the future. This paper is organized into several parts. Following the introduction, the paper explains the data and methods used in the research. In this part, the paper elaborates on the characteristics of rural poverty in Kokap based on two types of poverty, i.e., the rural poverty in lowland plains and in hilly areas. This differentiation is relevant since Kokap has two different kinds of areas with different characteristics. Later, the results and discussion will be elaborated into two different approaches, i.e., a partial approach that uses the five dimensions and an integrated approach. The final section of the paper is the conclusion.

Kokap Sub-district as a case study
This study uses Kokap Sub-district in Kulon Progo Regency of the Yogyakarta Special Province as the case for studying the poverty phenomenon since this sub-district still has a high rate of rural poverty. Specifically, the Kokap area was selected because of the changes it faces in the future as a result of the  The sub-district has two types of areas, i.e., lowland plains that consist of Hargomulyo Village and Hargorejo Village in the south and hilly area that consist of Kalirejo Village, Hargotirto Village and Hargowilis Village in the north. This research further elaborates on this rural area differentiation in the analysis and the results.

Methods of data and analysis
The study uses primary data in the form of questionnaires distributed randomly to 100 poor households in five villages within the sub-district. The characteristics of poverty are investigated through five variables based on the Deprivation Trap Theory, namely financial weaknesses, powerlessness, isolation, physical weaknesses, and vulnerability. The characteristics of poverty in Kokap District are described in detail through descriptive statistical analysis with homogeneous research objects, namely households identified by Statistics Indonesia (BPS) as below the poverty line. Based on this data, 4,381 poor households in Kokap are below the poverty line of the Kulon Progo Regency, with the average income of less than IDR312,403 per capita per month in 2015. This study uses random sampling techniques for data collection so each poor household in the population was given the same opportunity to be selected as population samples.
The analysis is carried out separately for the two types of areas (lowland and hilly areas). Two approaches were used to understand the rural poverty characteristics for the two types of poor rural household communities in Kokap Sub-district, i.e., partial approach that is carried out according to the five-dimensional aspects of the Deprivation Trap Theory, and later the analysis is elaborated in an integrated approach.

Analysis of deprivation trap characteristics
Kokap Sub-district, as one of the strategic areas of the NYIA airport, still faces the issue of poverty since it has the highest poverty rate in Kulon Progo Regency. Generally, poverty has only been measured in economic terms, while it is, in fact, a multidimensional phenomenon in which each case has different characteristics. Kokap Sub-district consists of five villages, three of which are located in mountainous areas with steep slopes,namely Hargowilis Village, Kalirejo Village, and Hargotirto Village, whereas two villages are located in lowland areas, namely Hargorejo Village and Hargomulyo Village.
The physical characteristics of Kokap affect the phenomenon of poverty in the area. The characteristics of poverty need to be explained partially based on the characteristics of the region. Partial discussion is intended to obtain a detailed picture of the conditions and to obtain a comprehensive picture of poverty in Kokap. In this section, the characteristics of poverty in the Kokap will be explained based on the physical characteristics of the region, namely the lowland rural areas and the highland rural areas. The explanation of the characteristics of poverty is done through the Deprivation Trap Framework which is divided into five dimensions that form a comprehensive picture of the poverty phenomena, namely Financial Weakness, Vulnerability, Powerlessness, Physical Weakness, and Isolation.

Financial weaknesses.
Financial Weaknesses is one of the dimensions in the deprivation trap framework that helps describe the phenomenon of rural poverty. In general, financial weakness is the main dimension that causes a person or household to face poverty. Based on the results of the questionnaire there are differences in the characteristics of the dimensions of financial weaknesses experienced by rural communities in both types of regions. The following is an explanation of the characteristics of financial weaknesses in the two types of areas in the Kokap Sub-district. Poverty is a condition of helplessness, isolation, and loss of dignity by an individual, but the financial weakness is at the core of those conditions [5]. The dimension of Financial Weaknesses is closely related to how poverty is measured. Financial Weaknesses are so closely related to the low-income household that it impacts on their living conditions.
Based on the results of the questionnaire that was evenly distributed to 20 village respondents of each village, it was uncovered that all respondents have an income below the Kulon Progo Regency regional minimum wage of IDR 1,613,200. All respondents in the five villages stated that their total household income is below IDR 1,600,000 per month. In the lowland rural area, 70% of respondents stated that their income is in the range of IDR 800,000 to IDR 1,600,000 per month, while 30% stated that they have an income of under IDR 800,000 per month. In the hilly rural area, 62% of respondents stated that their income is in the range of IDR 800,000 to IDR 1,600,000 per month, whereas 38% stated that their income is below IDR 800,000 per month. Respondents in both types of regions have a similar problem of very low household income.
In the lowlands, financial weakness is caused by the low level of skills of the poor which causes them difficulties to find jobs. This is especially the case for formal sector jobs created by the presence of airport activities in Temon. Respondents had no choice but to work as laborers, either farm laborers or miners. Many of them work only odd jobs. Irregular income and very low wages cause most of the farm laborers to face financial problems. The cause of financial weakness in the hilly villages is the limited capability of the poor to exploit the potentials of the surrounding local economy. Coconut is the main commodity of the hilly rural area of Kokap because of its abundance. However, this abundance of this commodity has not been able to improve the welfare of the poor because of their inability to process the raw materials. The limited capability of the poor to process the coconut products causes them to produce products that have no added value or are valued very low. In addition, these livelihoods are very dependent on the presence of middlemen, seasonal factors, and pests which means that it is unstable.The above conditions cause poor households to experience financial weakness which in turn impacts other dimensions. The form of financial weakness in lowlying rural areas is income; the income from both the head of the family and other working family members is insufficient to afford the necessary household expenses for basic needs. Other forms of weaknessesare low wages or salaries and erratic income frequencies.
The form of financial weakness in low-lying rural areas is income; the income from both the head of the family and other working family members is insufficient to afford the necessary household expenses for basic needs. Otherforms of weaknessesarelowwages or salaries and erratic incomefrequencies.
The underlying cause of financial weakness that occurs in poor households in low-lying rural areas is that the poor are only able to work inthe informal sector even though the development of NYIA creates many job opportunities.
Financial weakness is caused by the limited capability of thepoor to exploit the local economic potential, especially in the agricultural sector due to the limited knowledge and capital necessary for work activities. As such, this sector has not been able to provide economic benefits and improve the welfare of poor households. In addition, jobs in the agricultural sector have very low wages, uncertain income frequencies, and unclear job security. The impact of financial weakness is that poor households become very vulnerable to external factors and are unable to meet their health needs, thus impacting on weak physical health. They are dependent on assistance from other parties, namely the government, family, and neighbors.
The impact of financial weakness is that poorhouseholds become very vulnerable to external factors, unable to meet their health needs, thus impacting their weak physical health and be dependent on assistance from other parties, namely the government, family, andneighbors.
The main difference between the two types of areas is the pattern of work that causes their financial weakness. Lowland rural poor households largely work in the non-agricultural sector in odd jobs. Meanwhile, the hilly rural poor households rely more on the agricultural sector for employment. The employment sectors in both types of regions are very vulnerable and affect the welfare of the poor households in Kokap.

Powerlessness.
Powerlessness is a condition where a person does not have theopportunity to determine their life's path [8]. The spatial characteristics of an area affect the form of poverty that occurs including the form of powerlessness experienced by poor households. In general, helplessness is a condition of the poor who are unable to improve the quality of their own welfare. However, the further investigation uncovers that there are differentcharacteristics ofpowerlessnessthatoccurinlowlyingandhillyruralareas. The differences in the characteristics of the two types of regions are explained more in-depth in the following section.
The spatial characteristics affect the form of poverty that occurs including the characteristics of powerlessness experienced by poor households. Generally, powerlessness is a condition of the poor who are unable to improve their own welfare. However, further investigation reveals that different forms of powerlessness in low-lying rural areas and hilly rural areas. Poor lowland rural households are powerlessinadapting to the variousdevelopmentsthat occur, especiallytheurbanizationprocess as a result ofairportactivitiesinTemon.Variouspositiveimpactsofurbanization include changes in activities and spatial patterns, and the creation of new employment opportunities cannot be exploited by poor households.  The form of the powerlessness of poor households inlow-lying villages is that the poor do not have enough power to deal with various developments that occur.
The form of the powerlessness of poor households in hilly villages is a very low level of independence which leads them to be unable to change their standard of living. The cause of the powerlessness ofthepoor is the very high family burden due to the very large family size, which further decreases their power to change their livingconditions.
The cause of the condition of the powerlessness of the poor is the very high family burden due to the large family size and the very low level of independence of the poor. The impact of powerlessness is the high dependence of the community on outside assistance including the government, neighboring families, banks,and debts.
The impact of powerlessness is the low level of community independence; the high dependence of the community on external assistance including the government, neighboring families, banks, and debts.
Currently, poor households are mere spectators of the ongoing development. The reason behind this is the large household burdens and the low level of independence of poor households. Besides the large family size, the presence of disabled family members also is a large burden on poor households. Based on data on social welfare problems in Kokap in 2019, 441 poor people were recorded as elderly or disabled in HargorejoVillage and 170 people in Hargomulyo Village. Most disabled people have physical disabilities either from birth or due to work accidents. The existence of the elderly and people with disabilities increases the burden on the head of the family and other family members and may limit the ability to work due to the responsibility to care for them.Based on field findings, almost all poor households have elderly and/or persons with disabilities which are the financial responsibility by the head of the family. The impact of powerlessness is that poor households are financially dependent on outside assistance, especially from the government and fromloans that increasingly trap them in powerlessness.
The powerlessness is faced by hilly rural poor households is the inability to improve their lives independently which causes them to be very dependent on outside help. Poor households in hilly villages have not been able to optimize the use of the agricultural sector as a local economic potential due to the low capacity of human resources and the limited technology used. Thus, this sector does not provide economic benefits that could improve the living standards of workers, most of whom are poor households. This results in low levels of independence of poor households which leads them to be heavily dependent on aid and is trapped in a debt system that exacerbates their helplessness. All respondents stated that they depend on assistance from outside parties to fulfill their basic needs, 51% of respondents depend on the government, 17% depend on relatives or family members and 32 % depend on other parties.

Isolation.
The spatial characteristics of an area affect the form of isolation experienced by poor households. In general, isolation is a condition of confinement due to environmental and self-capacity factors. Further investigation uncovers that poor households in the two types of areas face very different forms of isolation.
In low-lying rural areas, poor households face difficulties in obtaining businesss pace which leads to their inability to enter the formal sector and take advantage of the impact of urbanization. This means that isolation is caused by the low capacity of human resources which makes it difficult to develop self-capacity and break free from poverty traps. Isolation due to low self-capacity causes them to be under-appreciated and not given the opportunity to obtain business space. Meanwhile, the form of isolation faced by poor households in hilly areas is alienation due to environmental factors, such as difficulties to reach public services and facilities and poor accessibility to employment opportunities.  The form of isolation in lowland rural areas is the difficulty of obtaining business space which leads to their inability to enter the formal sectorand take advantage of the impact of urbanization.
The form of isolation in rural areas in the lowlands is the limited access to public services and facilities as well as employment opportunities.
The reason for isolation is the low quality of human resources, which makes it difficult to compete in the formal sector.
The cause of the isolation is its hard-to-reach hilly terrain and the limitations of the poor in reaching the city center. Isolation is caused by the low capacity of the human resources which makes it difficult to develop self-capacity and break free from poverty traps.
The impact is suboptimal productivity due to the high cost of mobility and limitations to achieve better job opportunities.
Rural hilly areas have very low accessibility and difficult terrain which prevents poor households from self-development and increases their productivity. Difficult terrains limit poor households from reaching the city center or areas outside of their living environment due to high mobility costs. A result of this is suboptimal productivity due to high mobility costs and the limitations to achieve better job opportunities.

Physical weakness.
The spatial characteristics of an area affect the form of powerlessness experienced by poor households. Generally, the dimension of physical weakness in poverty traps is the physical limitation of an individual to earn a living. A weak body limits the ability of a person to move and earn income for the household.

Poverty Characteristic
Lowland rural areas Hilly rural areas

Physical Weakness
The form of physical weakness that occurs in low land rural communities is a history of non-communicable and infectious diseases and the low utilization of drugs to treat diseases.
The form of physical weakness that occurs in communities in hilly villages is a history of non-communicable and infectious diseases and the low utilization of drugs to treat diseases.
The reason for this is that financial weakness limits the poor's access to health services and not all poor people get health assistance from the government.
The reason for this is that financial weakness limits the poor's access to health services and not all poor people get health assistance from the government. The impact of financial weakness is that the productivity of wage earners in the household is often hampered leading to irregular household income.
The impact of financial weakness is that the productivity of wage earners of household income is often hampered leading to irregular household income.
Forms of physical weakness in both types of regions are the presence of disabled communities (persons with disabilities and the elderly) as well as a history of infectious diseases while these households have generally poor health. Based on field findings, the wage earners in poor households have strong physical strength; physical strength is the main capital for earning livelihoods in rural areas. However, the number of disabled groups in poor households is quite large and so far, the disabled members of the household have not been able to productively earn a living due to limited 3.15. Vulnerability. Rural poor people tend to be vulnerable because existing social protection measures have been unable to improve their quality of life [9]. The spatial characteristics of an area affect the form of vulnerability experienced by poor households. In general, the dimension of vulnerability to poverty traps is a condition of poor households' unpreparedness in dealing with certain conditions that they face. Further investigation uncovers that there are differences in the vulnerability characteristics of the two types ofregions. The form of vulnerability that occurs is theunpreparedness to changes in economic activities, namely a shift fromagricultural to non-agricultural activities even though the change is not significant.
Forms of vulnerability that occur are the poor communities' unpreparedness to external factors such as natural disasters, seasonal changes, and pests.
The reason for this is that people do not have the competence and capacity to work in the non-agricultural sector, limiting their ability to take advantage of the ongoing urbanization.
The cause is a financial weakness where people's income is insufficient to meet their daily needs, especially in the face of changing conditions.
The impact is that the community has experienced a decline in income and is threatened by the loss of livelihoods. This leads them to be very dependent on the financial assistance ofothers The impact is that the poor often experience a lack of income and are highly dependent on the financial assistance of others.
In low-land rural areas, the vulnerability faced by poor households is related to their attitudes towards changes in their economic situations, which were initially dominated by the agricultural sector, slowly transforming to activities in the non-agricultural sector due to urbanization. The unpreparedness is caused by the inability to take advantage of new opportunities that arise, due to their limited capacity to work outside of the agricultural sector. The impact is that poor households begin to experience a decline in income and eventually will be at risk of losing their livelihoods. Whereas, the form of vulnerability experienced by hilly poor households is their unpreparedness in dealing with external conditions including natural disasters, pests, and seasonal changes. The agricultural sector is the main sector that creates employment opportunities for the poor. Jobs in the agricultural sector are very vulnerable to external factors, which often results in a lack of income for its workers, specifically for the poor. The frequent lack of income means that poor households cannot rely solely on their income and are very dependent on outside assistance. This is also because poor households do not have enough savings and assets tosurvive.

Rural Poverty CharacteristicsAnalysis
The identification of rural characteristics is based on the dimensions of the Deprivation Trap framework. The results are elaborated into a portrait of rural poverty in Kokap, with the characteristics of poverty based on the five interrelated dimensions. The following section is an explanation of the characteristics of rural poverty by the type of region. poor are unable to obtain decent jobs so they depend on government welfare and other parties for their living. Their powerlessness to independently increase their well-being by obtaining decent jobs causes them to be very vulnerable. Further, the ongoing urbanization threatens their current livelihood systems and it is highly likelythat they will lose their jobs. Changes in activities from agricultural to non-agricultural activities also lower their incomes. At the same time,the rural poor are not mentally and financially ready to deal with changes due to their financial weakness.

Figure 2. Lowland Rural Poverty Based on theDeprivation Trap Framework
Financial weakness is affected by the physical weaknesses in poor households in the lowlands. These poor households have a very large household burden because of their large family size and family members with disabilities. The very few job choices and high dependence on physical strength cause the vulnerable groups (women and disabled) to be unproductive and only exacerbate the household burden. Vulnerable groups are unable to reach livelihood opportunities in other regions due to their low capacity and ability. This inability causes the poor to face the dimension of isolation. Isolation leaves low-lying rural communities with no choice but to take up any available work in rural areas, which is highly dependent on physical strength and has a high risk of work accidents with very low wages.

Hilly Rural Areas.
Similarly, financial weaknesses are the main dimension of poverty; it is characterized by the inability of households to independently meet their basic needs. The main employment of the poor in the hilly villages is as coconut farm laborers. Their low capacity and limited means of production have caused poor people to be unable to produce competitive products with high added value. Thus, the lack of income and irregular income frequency causes poor households to experience a dimension of financial weakness. This dimension impacts the dimension of powerlessness experienced by the poor. A form of powerlessness felt by poor households in hilly areas is the very low level of independence which makes it very difficult for them to change their standard of living. Poor households rely heavily on government assistance and are trapped in loan debts. The dimension of powerlessness is also influenced by the isolation they face.The hilly topography with a very low level of accessibility leaves the poor isolated. Consequently, the poor face limitations in achieving public services and facilities as well as limitations to employment opportunities in urban areas with more diverse types of work. Such isolation causes the poor to become more helpless. In addition, the powerlessness experienced by poor people in this region is a physical weakness due to their financial weaknesses which leads to their inability to adequately meet the nutritional needs of family members. Dimensions of physical weakness in poor households in rural areas are characterized by a large presence of dependent people including the elderly and the disabled. The existence of groups of people with disabilities in poor households increases the burden on households because disabled groups tend to be unproductive. The great burden on poor households exacerbates their helplessness. Poor households in hilly areas also experience a dimension of vulnerability. Forms of vulnerability that occur are their unpreparedness to external factors such as natural disasters, seasonal changes, and the presence of pests. Financial weakness experienced by poor households causes the inability of the community to meet their daily needs, especially in the face of changing conditions. External factors such as the potential for natural disasters, the presence of pests and changing seasons have caused the poor to be very vulnerable and often face conditions of lacking income.

Conclusion
Poverty characteristics are explained through the Deprivation Trap Framework by Robert Chamber in 1984 which describes the phenomenon of rural poverty in a multidimensional framework, comprising dimensions of Financial Weakness, Powerlessness, Vulnerability, Physical Weakness and Isolation. Based on the analysis, this study found that poor households in Kokap face five interrelated conditions in the Poverty Framework causing difficulties for poor households to escape poverty. The analysis of rural poverty characteristics uncovered that the characteristics of poverty are greatly influenced by spatial factors. Both types of rural areas have different characteristics of poverty, which affect the different forms of poverty traps experienced. The different poverty characteristics of the two types of rural areas form the basis for the formulation of adaptation strategies in the face of future environmental changes. That is needed because the phenomenon of poverty between the two types of regions cannot be generalized because it has different forms andneeds.