Urban kampung and household energy consumption in Bandung, Indonesia

This paper aims to understand the energy consumption of a type of urban form known as urban kampung in Bandung, Indonesia. The high building density characteristic of urban kampung often considered as a more energy efficient urban form. This paper tries to explore it by comparing the energy consumption and behaviour of people living in urban kampung with the energy consumed by those who live in organised settlements in form of vertical housing/flats (rumah susun). A questionnaire survey was conducted to 200 households living in the three neighbourhoods in Bandung, which represented the two types of urban form. The preliminary result shows that the energy consumption of urban kampung is slightly lower but somewhat similar compared with the vertical housing. The parcel size are probably the factor that affected this result, since the other components such as electricity bill, cooking fuel, and transportation expenditure do not express any differece within the two types of urban form. This study provides insight for policy-maker and city planners on the benefit of urban kampung to achieve a more energy efficient city. The city government might consider the strategy of revitalising and improving the urban kampung before converting them into vertical housing.


Introduction
A decade ago, the proportion of people living in urban areas exceeded fifty percent globally. Although higher population concentration is often regarded to be more energy efficient, urban areas consumes more energy compared with rural areas. One urban characteristic that might explain the high energy consumption is the building density. Since building energy use has a significant share in the total energy use, therefore the building density, types, and sizes in an area is an important factor to determine the energy consumption. The three building components mentioned above are often regarded as urban form. The relationship between different urban forms and energy consumption are well established in many studies [1][2][3][4][5]. Among other things, these studies concluded that the highdensity urban form can achieve better energy efficiency. This is one of the reason why more city governments are geared towards building vertical housing and flats replacing the landed houses. However, in developing country like Indonesia, there is a kampung settlements, that not only represent its own unique urban form, but also has a long history in shaping the Indonesian cities. In Bahasa Indonesia, urban kampung is a high density settlements that organically developed in the inner city. These urban kampungs are often parts of slum and squatter areas, with high density small houses, lack of basic sanitation and drainage, and mostly located at or around downtown. In 2015, the national government started the KOTAKU program, translated as City Without Slum program in major cities in Indonesia, including Bandung City. The Bandung City Masterplan outlined that the downtown area is not allocated for residential use, but only for commercial use and mixed-use [6]. This means that the residential use need to be transformed into at least a mixed-use (i.e. shop houses). Currently, there are several spots of slum area in the downtown of Bandung, and they are in the form of urban kampung. Although the City Government has a plan to demolish all the urban kampung downtown, the characteristic of urban kampung itself might contributes to reach a more energy efficient city.
Urban kampung is a unique type of settlements in Indonesian cities that often seen as slum area, squatter, and poor. Yet, that is not always the case. Some features in urban kampung such as, among other things, population density and land efficiency, are in line with compact city's principles [7][8].
The form of urban kampung can be considered as a compact urban form that could consume less energy. There is a need to investigate the energy consumption in urban kampung. This study aims to understand and compare the household energy consumption patterns between urban kampung and the planned urban form.
The physical patterns, layouts, and structures that make up an urban center are collectively called the urban form. Urban form is dynamic and always changing. There are two types of urban form based on the way it is grew [9]: 1) organic urban form, the unplanned and unorganised urban form; and 2) planned urban formthe organised urban form. Urban kampung is a type of organic settlement, so it is included into organic urban form.
Kampung actually means a village that usually refers to a settlement located in the rural areas. However, when urbanization occurred and the villagers moved to the city, they usually occupy empty patches of land in the city because the city itself cannot provide a decent or formal housing. Therefore, urban kampung grew within the city's boundaries [10]. The uniqueness of urban kampung is in the way of the citizens behave are still the same as they live in the rural area specifically in terms of social interactions and traditions. In brief, urban kampung can be defined as Indonesian unique settlement within the city's boundary that physically unorganised, densely populated, and socially still holds village values.
Urban kampung has some characteristics [11], first it is a place where the majority of the urban poor are living in, sometimes under slum and squatters condition. Second, the economic activities vary and are usually informal. The diversity also exist in ethnicity since mostly of the citizens are migrants from various village. Next, houses in urban kampung mostly are built by homeowners themselves without the help of architects or experts. Communality and social interaction in urban kampung is high, dynamic and vibrant. In some cities, economic activities in urban kampung give significant contribution to the city's economy. For example, Kampung Batik, tourist kampung, Chinatown, Heritage Kampung, etc.
In order to show energy consumed in the urban kampung, this paper compares it with the energy consumption in the organised urban forms existed in Bandung, Indonesia, namely the organised settlements in form of vertical housing or known as rumah susun. These two urban formsthe unorganised and the organised -are existed in Bandung, a city that started to have rapid high-rise building constructed and also mass public transportation development in the near future.

Methodology
Bandung City has 680 areas that considered as urban kampung [12]. This study tries to understand the energy consumption in urban kampung by comparing the energy expenditure of households living in urban kampung with those living in planned settlements. The type of planned settlements selected is the vertical housing (Rusun), which also considered as a type of compact urban form. A total of 200 questionnaires were distributed in 3 areas in Bandung City. Among the three areas, we took two urban kampung (Kp. Braga and Kp. Astana Anyar) and compare them with the organised settlement in flats (Rusun) Sarijadi. The reasons the two kampungs were selected are because of their strategic location near the city center, and the socio-economic level are somewhat similar with those living in the Rusun. Energy consumption is highly dependent on socio-economic level of the households, therefore in order to avoid this bias, we chose those who has similar socio-economic level. The components investigated were the amount spent for monthly electricity, energy for cooking, and transportation. The result was analysed using descriptive statistic.

Results and Discussions
Based on the samples, there are several results obtained such as the energy consumption based on electricity expenditure, cooking expenditure, and transportation expenditure. The preliminary result of electricity expenditure showed by Table 2.  Most of the respondents spend around 5-10% of their income on cooking expenditure. Majority of the households in Kampung Braga spend a little bit more energy for cooking purposes compared with those in Astana Anyar and Sarijadi.
The transportation modes used by the residents in Astana Anyar, Braga and Sarijadi Flats, and the preliminary result of transportation expenditure by private and public transportation in that areas are presented in Table 4, Table 5, and Table 6 respectively. The table shows that majority of the respondents in three areas spend less than Rp 100,000 monthly for public transportation. This is considered quite low which also means that they rarely used public transportation. The public transportation in this study is also included the online transportation using vehicle-sharing app.
Based on the initial analysis, there are several main points that can be discussed. Among three areas surveyed, two are urban kampungs located downtown (Astana Anyar and Braga), whereas one is Monthly electricity expenditure are mostly around Rp 100,000, which not so high considering the per capita electricity consumption in Indonesia 2018 is 1,064 KWh/year [13] or around Rp 115,000/month. However, households in Astana Anyar spend more varies for electricity, mostly up to Rp 200,000/month. This could be the outcome of a more various electricity appliances ownership, and also few houses in Astana Anyar is functioned as small shops. The parcel or house size also might be the cause of this result. Electricity in urban kampung houses usually falls under the low installed capacity (450 VA and 900 VA), that fall under the subsidised category.
Respondents in Braga spend a little high for cooking purposes compared with the other areas. Probably because Braga is located well within downtown and commercial area, and some of the residents are taking this opportunity to open a small shops in their houses (hawkers) some also still use kerosene instead of LPG.
Transportation expenditure of households in Braga is quite high compared with the other two areas. Which a little anomaly for a location that sit in the downtown. Location-wise, the HH in vertical housing Sarijadi is somewhat spend lower transportation cost eventhough it is located far from downtown. A more concerning result is that the expenditure for public transportation are very low in all areas, which could means that it is rarely used.

Conclusion
Overall, the energy consumption in urban kampung is not so different with vertical housing. We have compared two types of urban form in three areas that are considered as compact form and under similar socio-economic level. Overall, the energy consumption in urban kampung is not so different with vertical housing. On the contrary, the transportation expenditure between different urban forms seems to be similar. This is because the high number of private vehicles use in all types of urban form. Households that live in proximity to the city center or daily activity places are also using private vehicles instead of public transportation.
Although the result is still early, but it is safe to assume that urban kampung can be considered as a type of compact urban form that has potential as a low energy urban form. It appears that with certain treatment, the urban kampung can have impact to energy consumption almost at the similar with the vertical housing form. However, since the electricity consumption of urban kampung dwellers are similar with those living in flats, it can also be the reason for the local government to continue their policy on having 0% or urban kampung in the city center and convert them into flats that will increase the size of open space and create a cleaner city image.There might be policy implications to the KOTAKU program (city without slum), that tries to transform every urban kampung in big cities into a rather formal housing.