Decolonising the Zimbabwean ordinary level Food Technology and Design curriculum

Abstract Informed by the critical theory, this paper contributes to debates on decolonising education as an agenda for a heritage-driven curriculum espoused by the current Zimbabwe competence-based curriculum. It focuses on the “O” level Food Technology and Design curriculum, an area that has not been much explored. The paper challenges visible and subtle hegemonic tendencies embedded in the school curriculum, making it difficult for school graduates to identify with their heritage. Using literature review and policy documents’ analysis, it explores the place of indigenous leafy vegetables in the “O” level Food Technology and Design curriculum. Two observations are highlighted. Firstly, there is limited space provided for indigenous leafy vegetables in the “O” level Food Technology and Design curriculum. Secondly, not much has been emphasised on the nutritional value of indigenous leafy vegetables. To this end, we argue that the “O” level Food Technology and Design curriculum needs to be decolonised if more space is to be provided to indigenous leafy vegetables. To achieve this, advocacy and a deliberate shift towards the inclusion of indigenous dishes and particularly indigenous leafy vegetables in the teaching and learning of Food Technology and Design ought to be foregrounded.


Introduction
This paper argues that the "O" level Food Technology and Design (FTD) curriculum which seem to focus on western dishes compounded by the indigenous leafy vegetables' unfamiliar taste make them unpopular. Surprisingly, Zimbabwe is rich in semi-domesticated indigenous leafy vegetable species that are valuable for nutritional wellness and buffer against the development of varied ABOUT THE AUTHORS Thenjiwe Mwase is a PhD candidate at the University of the Free State, South Africa, Faculty of Education, Science and Technology Department. She is a fulltime Lecturer in the Department of Science, Technology and Design Education at Midlands State University, Gweru, Zimbabwe. Her research interests focus on Indigenous Knowledge Systems, Food Product Development, Community Nutrition, curriculum and pedagogy and Virtual instruction in Technical and Vocational Education.
Tendayi Marovah is a Research Fellow at the University of the Free State, South Africa, Centre for Development Support. He is also a fulltime Lecturer and consultant in the Department of Humanities, Business Development and Arts Education at the Midlands State University, Zimbabwe. His research interests focus on curriculum and pedagogy, higher education, social justice, human development and theorising using the capability approach and the philosophy of Ubuntu. health conditions. A number of scholars such as Chipurura et al. (2013), Ganeshpurkar and Saluja (2017), Gowele et al. (2019), Gumbo (2020), Kimani et al. (2020), testify that indigenous leafy vegetables (ILV) proffer a sustainable food system that delivers nutrition and food security to communities through the local environment. Surprisingly, not much attention has been given to ILV in the Zimbabwean school curriculum. To deepen our understanding of the value of ILVs and their representation in the "O" level FTD curriculum, the paper uses the following research questions: What is the nutritional value of ILV? How are ILVs represented in the Zimbabwean "O" level FTD competence-based curriculum? Using Critical Theory (CT) as our lense, how can the "O" level FTD curriculum be decolonised? "O" level is a third-and fourth-year secondary school-level course spanning over 2 years. The potential value of these indigenous plants should not be ignored, as they point to possible exciting innovations, hitherto, less explored. Kimani et al. (2020) observe that ILVs are accessed from the local wild and their low uptake is a risk factor for non-communicable diseases (NCDs). NCDs are a health consequence prevailing in the twenty-first century and include, but are not limited to cancers, heart disease, chronic lung diseases and diabetes (Demaio et al., 2013). As such, the paper highlights ways of safeguarding health and adopting positive culinary practices that create and promote the uptake of ILVs. Kimani et al. (2020) point out that the indigenous plants have high-nutrition content unparalleled by their exotic counterparts. To emphasise this point, they reveal that Cleome gynandra, a spider plant, has a higher nutritive value than cabbage. If the indigenous leafy vegetables are strategically included in FTD curriculum, they can contribute to curing of diseases such as anaemia, hypertension, headaches and peptic ulcers, among others, prevalent among the young generation (Kimani et al., 2020). In this way, the existence of future generations is guaranteed through an environmentally sustainable food system. Hence, using locally available resources such as ILVs is useful in advancing a heritage-driven FTD curriculum. Since ILVs are part of Africa's cultural heritage, they play important roles in the customs, traditions and food culture of the African household.
In developing the argument, this paper is divided into seven sections beginning with the introduction. This is followed by a historical analysis of the background of the FTD curriculum. The third section examines the methodology used in the study followed by the nutritional value of ILVs. We then analyse how ILVs are represented in the FTD O level syllabus. Using the CT as a lense, the paper then articulates the decolonisation of the FTD curriculum agenda. This is followed by suggestions on how to decolonise the FTD curriculum as an endeavour to transform the epistemic, oppressive status quo regarding African indigenous foods. The last section concludes the paper by highlighting major aspects covered. In the next section, we focus on the historical developments of the FTD curriculum and how indigenous leafy vegetables are situated.

A historical background of the Food Technology and Design curriculum
FTD started during the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries when it was still known as Home Economics in the school curriculum. During this time, the field of Science Education took precedence in many educational settings such that learning of science was then applied to the management of the home (Richards, 2000). Home Management, Fashion and Fabrics, Food and Nutrition and at times Mothercraft were the subject combinations which evolved under perpetual curriculum reviews in the world and in Zimbabwe under the umbrella term "Home economics" (Richards, 2000). According to Richards (2000), home economics was formally established as a field of study in 1909. Slatter (2020) observes that in New Zealand, Homecraft became a compulsory subject in 1949. The aim of Homecraft was to teach housewifery, cooking practice and cookery theory. In the array of curriculum reviews that took place globally, the quality of lives and families remained the philosophy of the Home Economics syllabus.
In Zimbabwe, home economics was introduced as Domestic Science where women were trained as domestic workers of white settlers (Mberengwa, 1999;Ndebele, 2014). In this case, the idea of training of women as domestic workers was guided by the ethos of the settler economy which was basically patriarchal. It should not be surprising that the subject was thus introduced to serve the interest of the western colonisers rather than black Africans. Simple cleanliness, laundry work, cookery skills and basic mending were the core areas of instruction in this programme. 1966 saw the curriculum review of Zimbabwe's education system in the then Rhodesia. Mberengwa (1999) explains that during this time, the education system was categorised into F1 and F2 systems. The F1 system curriculum was inclined towards subjects such as Geography, Mathematics, Science, History and English. On the other hand, the F2 system was a curriculum biased towards practical subjects such as agriculture, home economics, building and woodwork. These subjects were offered to only 37.5% primary school graduates whose qualifications were not recognised by employers (Mberengwa, 1999). Ndebele (2014) further explains that this type of two-tier education system was for the coloniser and the other for the colonised. This two-tier system was a result of the 1966 Educational Plan that emanated from the Unilateral Declaration of Independence by the Smith Regime in 1965. According to Ndebele (2014), the F2 system had shortcomings, it "produced only manual labourers without management skills" (p.2). In this regard, the graduates could not conduct costing of given projects or interpret data from projects other than to follow orders.
At independence in 1980, a new philosophy that would change the colonial, settler-type of education in Zimbabwe to one that would teach about production, provide labour training and work experience to youngsters, while they were in secondary and higher education was introduced. This was the Education with Production philosophy (EWP). Ndebele (2014) explains that two nationalist movements, the Zimbabwe African People's Union (Patriotic Front), (PF-ZAPU) and the Zimbabwe African National Union (Patriotic Front), ZANU (PF) spearheaded EWP. EWP aimed at inculcating critical consciousness in the cadres and was rooted in the Marxist concept of polytechnic education.
Polytechnic education emphasised the fusion of practical and cognitive skill so that every citizen becomes a mental and manual worker at the same time. On the other hand, Ndebele (2014, p.370) describes polytechnic education as one that liberates a worker from becoming a passive executor of orders to ". . . a totally developed individual for whom the different social functions are different modes of activity he takes up in turn." It can be noted therefore that from this Marxist philosophical perspective, strides that would make learning linked with productive work from a young age were emphasised. Emphasising the aforesaid view, Dzingai Mutumbuka the then Minister of Education and Culture stressed that EWP demanded a combination of the highest academic, practical and managerial skills (Ndebele, 2014). Thus, the EWP philosophy was introduced in eight schools established for returning ex-combatants (Ndebele, 2014). It is apparent from the EWP concept that the Marxist philosophy was carried over into the new curriculum framework that was later developed in the Zimbabwe education system in 2017.
The quest for a Technical and Vocational curriculum that would suit the indigenous community and uphold the country's ideals, while promoting development, was paramount. Chitate (2015) reports that EWP of the 1980s failed to take off due to several reasons, such as the attitude of learners, parents and teachers who mistook EWP to mean manual work. This led to the appointment of a commission of inquiry into Education and Training which recommended a multipathway system of education. According to Chitate (2015), this was arguably the best school system ever to be designed in the post-independence Zimbabwe. This system proposed the establishment of a "four-pathway" senior school system which was meant to develop technical and vocational skills among Zimbabwean students for their future formal employment or selfemployment.
The increasing awareness of the problems associated with a purely academic education system justified the new proposal by the commission which sought to merge academic, business/commercial and technical and vocational instruction. It was hoped that a skills-driven education would enable young Zimbabweans to be relevant on the job market and create their own future employment. With such a noble system of education, Chitate (2015) like his contemporary and succeeding educationist wonder why the recommendations of the commission were not operationalised.
In 2017, Zimbabwe then introduced a new educational framework known as The Curriculum Framework for Primary and Secondary Education (2015)(2016)(2017)(2018)(2019)(2020)(2021)(2022), also known as the Competence-Based Curriculum (CBC). The aim was to fulfil the 2030 Agenda that requires education to empower people with the skills, knowledge and values that enable them to live in dignity, build their lives and contribute to their societies. This is also in line with the 2030 Agenda which aims to ensure inclusive and equitable quality education and promote lifelong learning opportunities for all by 2030 (Manokore & Shava, 2021). The CBC is currently in use in all Zimbabwean schools. In the same context, Ministry of Primary and Secondary Education (2016) reveal that the Continuous Assessment (CA) and Summative Examinations (SE) developed in the CBC are a shift from the academic orientated education to a competence-based primary and secondary education system in Zimbabwe. The two assessments are a deliberate focus on the holistic development of the learner and to promote the twenty-first century skills and competences. These twenty-first century skills and competences promote survival in any environment through completion of real-world activities (MoPSE Assessment framework, 2020). Thus, the framework brought about a name change from Food and Nutrition to FTD for form 1 through to Advanced level which will be discussed in detail under the findings and discussion section. However, for purposes of this study, only the "O" level syllabus shall be discussed. In the next section, we discuss the methodology used for the study and how this helped to respond to research questions.

Methodology
This paper draws on data generated from a systematic literature review and policy document analysis to construct our argument and sustain it. To this end, a qualitative approach informs the study as it assisted to unpack the differing and converging perspectives of the various scholars over time. In agreement, Choy (2014) points out that the qualitative approach is a broad and openended inquiry that allows a critical reflection on issues of utmost importance. It is this idea of inquiry which connects well with the CT which guides this study. The focus on review of the literature on curriculum development of the FTD curriculum in Zimbabwe since the colonial era was useful in capturing an in-depth understanding of educational practitioners' experiences over time, background and views, using a case study of the O-level FTD syllabus in Zimbabwe. Hyett et al. (2014) point out that these naturally occurring sources of knowledge can be represented by written documents, especially official policy documents such as the FTD "O" level national syllabus. Document analysis and literature review were used as complementary methods to provide a confluence of evidence that reduces potential biases, but, rather, one that breeds credibility to the study findings (Bowen, 2009). The two methods required data selection rather than data collection (Bowen, 2009).
The process of literature review involved seven stages borrowed from Snyder (2019). The process started with a clear definition of the research problem and the type of study to be undertaken. In our case, we observed that despite several reforms and innovations, the Zimbabwean school curriculum has not achieved much to deal with the needs of our societies. Having defined the problem, we decided the scope of the search by using discipline, topic, region and time as our key filters. The discipline was predetermined by our own areas of interest in our research work, curriculum studies and FTD. We also reviewed literature on the decolonisation of the curriculum agenda. We then decided to use the Google Search Engine to explore relevant studies of interest. The preliminary search of literature using the Google Search Engine produced over 120 relevant articles and books. For practical reasons, we then decided to focus on the region of sub-Saharan Africa with a special focus on Zimbabwe. We further delimited our literature by time. We decided to focus more on post-colonial literature on curriculum reforms in Zimbabwe since the turn of the twenty-first century. 1999 became the benchmark for the earliest literature we would explore. To keep our options open, we decided to use the Google Search Engine to look for relevant literature guided by our research questions. This search engine provided leads of scholarly work responding to our research questions. The use of keywords and phrases within the research questions and topics proved to be useful in narrowing down the literature to be read and discussed to 50. This was categorised into three broad categories of international, regional and local literature. We read the literature separately and then had critical reflective discussions using notes we had generated. The process ended by looking for any other relevant studies by each of the chosen authors.
The FTD form 1-4 syllabi for 2015-2022 was used to anchor the document analysis process, whilst literature review was used to provide insights relating to the background of the study as well as framing our argument. Though it can be argued that there was biased selectivity in choosing documents and literature for analysis as a disadvantage, in this study, such bias was ethically useful as we were targeting information-rich sources. This argument is supported by the fact that the FTD form 1-4 syllabus is the only document produced by the government of Zimbabwe targeting this age group and is distributed to all high schools in the country. In this way, the credibility, authenticity, representativeness and accuracy of the syllabus as a selected document for this study cannot be doubted (Bowen, 2009). In analysing the form 1-4 FTD syllabus as a document chosen for this study, content analysis was undertaken through skimming, reading and interpreting information and organising it into related categories and themes that are central to the study's research questions. Bowen (2009) and Corbin and Strauss (2008) confirm that content analysis allows a researcher to identify relevant and meaningful text or data from selected documents.
The main purpose of a systematic approach was to critique, analyse and synthesise research articles or published texts qualitatively (Snyder, 2019). The main ideas and relationships of issues portrayed in literature were thoroughly examined using both broad and narrow questions such that new perspectives emerge (Snyder, 2019). For example, our broad question "how are indigenous leafy vegetables integrated in the FTD syllabus over time?" became our point of departure in providing evidence for the nature and scope of a colonised FTD curriculum. Hence, the decolonisation of the "O" level form 1-4 FTD curriculum in Zimbabwe through harnessing of indigenous leafy vegetables in the curriculum was cited as an emerging topic. The 2017 curriculum review and the subsequent adoption of a heritage-based educational philosophy that seeks to promote indigenous foods in the FTD curriculum is evidence of such. Moreover, the critique and analysis of literature has brought to light the health and nutritional benefits of the indigenous leafy vegetables and their place in the FTD curriculum. Furthermore, the study has helped channel the ILVs into fulfilling the SDG4 on provision of quality education by 2030.
In the next section, we discuss findings from the study informed by the methodology explained above. The themes under the section are guided by research questions which the study sought to answer.

Indigenous leafy vegetables and their nutritional value
To place ILVs in the context of this discussion, this section outlines the nutritional value of some of these vegetables as outlined in reviewed literature. Whilst there are several indigenous leafy vegetables found across the country, for practical and strategic reasons we will focus on five common types. We refer to their ChiShona and ISiNdebele names apart from English for practical reasons. Below is a table listing five common indigenous leafy vegetables with their various names starting with the scientific name. Table 1 shows types of commonly eaten Indigenous leafy vegetables in Zimbabwe. Their scientific and English names have been indicated. Reference to the ILVs' Indigenous names has been given. The table has only cited two indigenous names for the cited ILVs (among other indigenous languages spoken in Zimbabwe) which are iSiNdebele and ChiShona as they are the mostly spoken indigenous languages in Zimbabwe. Gumbo (2020) reveals that there is an underrepresentation of indigenous knowledge on food in the Technology Education classroom which also includes FTD. He further points out that indigenous knowledge has the potential to transform education if embraced. It is critical therefore to take advantage of the different species of the indigenous leafy crop to transform the FTD curriculum. Citing the spider plant (C. gynandra) and pumpkin leaves (Cucurbita muschata), Gumbo (2020) states that the mentioned vegetables contain non-nutrient bioactive compounds in addition to health-promoting compounds such as anticancer compounds, antioxidants, mineral elements and vitamins.
Maroyi (2011) identifies C.gynandra, Cucurbita maxima and Vigna unguiculata as some of the most important and widely used ILVs in Zimbabwe. Gowele et al. (2019) point out that ILVs contribute essential micronutrients such as magnesium, zinc, vitamin C and A, calcium and iron. One of the water-soluble vitamins, vitamin C, is an antioxidant which functions as an enhancer of dietary iron absorption and is also required for normal metabolic functions. Antioxidants are substances that protect cells from oxidative damage caused by free radicals. Free radicals accumulate in the body because of chemical exposure, disease and the sun among others. The presence of free radicals in one's body leads to an onset of various conditions such as hypertension, cancer, neurodegenerative disorders and inflammatory conditions (Adefegha & Oboh, 2011; Kamble & Gacche, 2019).
In addition to antioxidants, indigenous leafy vegetables contain a phytochemical known as flavonoids. Pharmacologically, flavonoids are involved in combating inflammatory conditions, obesity and Alzheimer's disease (Ganeshpurkar & Saluja, 2017). Rutin is another flavonoid found in spider plant . This flavonoid also possesses pharmacological potential such as antibacterial activity, Central Nervous System protectant activity, prevention of inflammation and antiviral activity (Ganeshpurkar & Saluja, 2017).
Bidens pilosa/Blackjack/ucucuza/mutsine contains calcium, iron and zinc among other nutrients (Lawal et al., 2015). Chipurura et al. (2013) confirm the aforesaid view by writing that B. pilosa is a valuable source of iron and zinc. The mineral element iron is important for the formation of red blood cells that alleviate iron deficiency anaemia in communities with limited access to animal food sources. It is interesting to note therefore that the age group found in high schools, which is a target area in this study, is the adolescent group with their ages ranging from 13 to 19, at times up to 21 as in late adolescent stage. Nelima (2015) describes the adolescent stage as a period of intense cognitive, physical and psychosocial development. At this developmental level, iron needs become higher because of increased requirements for the expansion of blood volume. The expansion of blood volume is associated with the onset of menstruation and the adolescents' growth spurt. The shortage of iron in the body causes a deficiency disease known as anaemia. One wonders how an adolescent girl is expected to cope during menstruation if blood volume becomes compromised due to inadequate iron levels in the body. Upadhye and Upadhye (2017) observe that adolescent girl population in the world faces serious nutritional challenges that affect growth, development and their livelihoods as adults. In agreement, Nelima (2015) points out that almost half of adolescent girls living in sub-Saharan Africa are anaemic. The same author defines anaemia as a condition whereby blood contains low levels of haemoglobin evidenced by low quality or quantity of Red Blood Cells (RBCs). This causes an individual to be fatigued, have reduced work capacity and become susceptible to infection.
Haemoglobin is an iron-rich protein responsible for giving blood its red colour. It is again responsible for transporting oxygen to the rest of the body. Of concern is the lowered physical work capacity, impaired cognitive function and lowered school achievement among adolescents if iron deficiency anaemia is not curbed (Nelima, 2015). The decolonisation of the FTD curriculum helps to highlight nutrient-rich sources of indigenous leafy vegetables that may help curb the identified deficiency diseases such as anaemia among others.
The African spider plant, C.gynandra, is a highly nutritious leafy green and has traditional medicinal properties (Mishra et al., 2011;Neugart et al., 2017;Somers et al., 2020). It also has high antioxidant activity and is a "source" of iron and a "high vegetable source" for magnesium, calcium and manganese. C.gynandra also curbs deficiencies of calcium, iron and vitamin "A". These deficiencies are a common occurrence in many sub-Saharan African countries (Hoffman et al., 2017). Calcium deficiency causes bone deformities in children that are known as rickets, osteomalacia in adults and osteoporosis in elderly people. Vitamin A deficiency leads to Xerophthalmia. With gradual worsening of vitamin "A", an individual may start experiencing night blindness which is the inability to see under low levels of illumination (Sommer, 2008). The African nightshade, amaranth and spider plant promote food security. Furthermore, decoctions of the leaves are used as an anti-inflammatory agent and to treat arthritis, relieve pneumonia, cure recurrent malaria and serve as an antibacterial agent (Omondi et al., 2017).
V. unguiculata or cowpea and the mowa/imbuya may be cooked fresh or dry and eaten as relish with maize staple thick porridge (isitshwala or sadza). The plant species are also termed famine foods in rural Southern Africa. They may be cooked with a tomato or peanut sauce and served alone or with meat as relish. Both species have been identified for the treatment of diabetes mellitus (Thembo et al., 2010). In support of the aforesaid, Maringe (2015) points out that Cowpea and blackjack also have comparatively higher levels of iron and calcium relative to the other vegetables. Kuo et al. (2021) wrote that the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations have regarded B. pilosa as an edible plant since 1975. The vegetable has been traditionally used as a food and medicine in Africa, America and Asia. The whole plant or leaves of B. pilosa, its flowers, stems and/or roots are used for dietary or medicinal purposes if taken either fresh or dried. B. pilosa may be used as an ingredient in drinks, diets and medicinal remedies (Kuo et al., 2021). Similarly, the leaves are commonly used as an ingredient in drinks and foods. Its characteristics for the treatment of diabetes, obesity and hypertension in the world has again been recorded (Xuan & Khanh, 2016).
In South America, B.pilosa is used as an edible plant and herbal tea by the native Amazonians (Xuan & Khanh, 2016). In Kenya, the leafy vegetable is also used to improve human health and as a traditional leafy vegetable (Orech et al., 2007). The inhabitants of the Himalayan region harvest the fresh leaves to prepare a beverage known as "Ladakhi tea" (Bhatt et al., 2009). Moreover, in Hawaii and Australia, the young shoot tips are used in tea and juice (Xuan & Khanh, 2016). Various types of preparations, extracts and individual compounds derived from this plant have been found to possess biological and pharmacological activities such as anti-malarial, anti-allergy, antihypertensive and smooth muscle relaxant, anti-cancerogenic, anti-diabetic, anti-inflammatory, anti-microbial and an antioxidant (Xuan & Khanh, 2016).
From the above, ILVs are a rich source of nutritious meals. This demonstrates that the limited or no use of indigenous leafy vegetables in FTD school curriculum has nothing to do with their lack of nutritional value, this points to a deliberate undermining of Indigenous knowledge systems by the colonial education system. An argument may be raised regarding the seasonality of the indigenous vegetables under discussion. Gogo et al. (2016) suggest postharvest treatments to preserve the indigenous leafy vegetables. Such treatments may include drying, blanching and fermentation, thus, alleviating food insecurity through these viable options.
The fact that the ILVs can be harnessed and stored for use when they are out of season demonstrates the potential of indigenous knowledge to be used for value addition as well as commercialisation. In their freshness, the ILVS can be cooked during a practical lesson by either boiling or steaming. They can also be added to meat stews and can be used in pastry as a filling once combined with sauces such as cheese sauce. They can also be used as relish and as ingredients in biscuits, snacks, breads and scones among others. In a study carried out in the Eastern Cape, South Africa, Taleni et al. (2012) observed that the young leaves of the pumpkin and nightshade species were preferred because of their soft texture and would also take a short time to cook. They go on to suggest the addition of meat to ILVs because of a high preference of meals with meat in many parts of the country cited in the study. Moreover, they point out that ingredients such as tomatoes, onion, cooking oil and seasoning may be added to the ILVs, thus, improving their nutritive value. Meat stew with any type of ILVs added may also be served to complement starch-based dishes such as maize, rice, millet or sorghum. As such, variety to the diet is enhanced (Maroyi, 2006).
It is also possible to cook dried, seasoned ILVs during a practical lesson. Dried leafy vegetables are commonly known as umfushwa/mufushwa and are ideal when the leafy type is out of season. Fresh, newly formed young leaves are harvested and dried in the sun for several days. At times, the harvested fresh young leaves are par boiled and then left to dry under the sun. They are then stored safely for later use. Matikiti et al. (2012) observe that the fully grown, newly formed tender leaf that is nearest the growing tip is best as it is very soft and has good taste. Tender leaves also reduce cooking time. Value addition of the dried vegetable/mufushwa/umfushwa can thus be obtained by adding peanut butter or tomatoes. Mufushwa/umfushwa may be added to cheese, the newly created dish may then be called mfushwa/umfushwa in cheese sauce. This innovation can be served together with mashed potatoes, can be used as filling in pastry cases and used to make savoury flans. In the old curriculum, it was common for learners to follow standardised recipes that would call for use of spinach in cheese sauce. It is apparent that in this new education 5.0, decolonising the curriculum creates opportunities for learners to substitute the exotic spinach with muboora/ibhobola, and other varieties of suggested indigenous leafy vegetables which can be used either fresh or dried in the same cheese sauce.
In the next section, we present how indigenous leafy vegetables are represented in the FTD "O" level syllabus.

O level FTD syllabus and the representation of indigenous leafy vegetables
The "O" level FTD syllabus aims to develop an aesthetic sense and an appreciation of indigenous foods, herbs, spices and other locally available foods and to promote their creative use (p2, Aim 3.3). Some of the topics covered by the syllabus include food, nutrition, methods of cooking, meal planning and food service, preparation, cooking and presentation of different foods and beverages and food preservation. At least 6 periods of 35-40 min/week for form 1-2 and at least 6-8 periods of 35-40 min for form 3-4 should be allocated per class of not more than 20 learners. Four consecutive periods should be allocated for practical lessons for all levels. Some of the assessment objectives require learners to be able to explain the nutritive value of various foods (including indigenous foods) and their functions in the body, apply scientific principles underlying methods of preparation, cooking, serving, storage and preservation of food, demonstrate use and care of various equipment used in the preparation and serving of food (including indigenous equipment) and to cook and serve nutritious and attractive dishes using indigenous and other locally available foods by the end of the 4-year course. Both theory and practical learning activities are assessed.
Under the CBC, FTD is concerned with food, its nutritive value and application tools that solve real-life problems. Its rationale is to promote indigenous foods such that norms and values (unhu/ ubuntu) are preserved in food preparation and service Ministry of Primary and Secondary Education, Food Technology and Design syllabus (Form 1-4) (2015-2022). The objectives of the syllabus are to make use of locally available indigenous foods in preparing nutritious meals. To fulfil this objective, the paper proposes a deliberate use of indigenous leafy vegetables to promote their creative use, ensure health and promote culture. In one of the topics, "vegetables and fruits", under the form of three syllabi and under the "suggested learning activities and notes" section, the inclusion of the indigenous leafy vegetables in lessons is further emphasised. In this way, vegetable preparation and cooking are demonstrated. This culminates in ownership and legitimacy of a heritage-based FTD curriculum.
The FTD 4-year learning phase covers the theoretical component and the practical component. Four consecutive periods of 35-40 min/week are allocated per class for practical lessons where preparation of dishes, cooking, serving, discussion of results, and finally, washing up, takes place. On the other hand, theoretical lessons are allocated for a double period of 35-40 min/week. The theory topics are directly aligned to the practical work that would have been undertaken during that week. Likewise, the final national "O" level exam scheme of assessment has a focus on summative assessment and Continuous Assessment (CA). The summative assessment contributes 60% towards the final examination, where the theory and practical component each contributes 30% towards the final.
CA is a process evaluation that carries 40%. The 40% is divided into three components which are practical, project and theory. These three components contribute 20%, 10% and 10%, respectively. The CA is derived from 11 terms that the student spends at high school from Form 1 to 4. Term 12 is set aside for the final national examinations. The final national examination mark and the CA are both averaged to obtain a final grade for each learner. The practical exam requires the candidate to make a choice of dishes, a plan of work and an order of ingredients within one and a half hours. The actual preparation of the dishes chosen which is the final practical examination usually takes place after a week and other subsequent weeks till all the schools in the country that offer the learning area have been assessed. In this case, an external examiner supervises the two-and -a-half-hour practical examination. It is in this regard that this paper is inclined to the practical component in "O" level FTD instruction; hence, it is critical to ground the decolonisation of indigenous leafy vegetables in the mentioned curriculum. In doing so, the themes found in the syllabus that relate to indigenous leafy vegetables were analysed to find out to what extent they promote the decolonisation of the FTD form 1-4 curricula. The frequency of these themes was also of importance in this study as it drives the depth to which the place of the indigenous leafy vegetables is emphasised. Thus, we argue that the more the emphasis made on the indigenous leafy vegetables, the greater the role and place they will have in the curriculum. Table 2 presents themes in the form 1-4 FTD syllabus.  Table 2 shows themes found in the form 1-4 FTD syllabus (2015-2022) focusing on the frequency of each theme in the FTD syllabus. This syllabus was developed under the new heritagebased philosophy in Zimbabwe geared towards promoting indigenous foods. The six themes that have the word indigenous' are found in this syllabus. It is interesting to note that theme "6" has a focus on indigenous equipment. It is also important to note that what follows the word "indigenous" in all the six themes vary. The descriptions are either healthy foods, foods, etc. There is no mention of the specific "foods" that are termed "indigenous". It gives the user a choice to decide which fruits, vegetables or meats to prepare that may be termed indigenous. This may have an impact on how wide the inclusion of the indigenous leafy vegetables will be in the FTD form 1-4 curricula. In Table 3, we present the frequency of the use of the word indigenous in each of the syllabuses. Table 3 indicates the frequency of the term "indigenous" in the form 1-4 FTD syllabus. Three is the highest frequency in the form 1 syllabus. All the other forms have a frequency of 1 each. Again, the type of food that is meant to be indigenous is not stated. One is of the idea that a deliberate mention of the exact indigenous food that is said to be "indigenous" can go a long way in paving way for the indigenous leafy vegetables to find a place in the FTD form 1-4 syllabi. This will make the end user draft a school syllabus and a scheme-cum plan that deliberately promotes their use in teaching and learning. Table 4 presents frequency of indigenous themes in other sections of the form 1-4 syllabi. Table 4 shows the frequency of indigenous themes in other sections of the form 1-4 FTD syllabi. It demonstrates that other sections of the syllabus also regard the need for the indigenous foods to have a place in the FTD curriculum. It is now up to the end user to refocus these themes into direct itemised indigenous foods that would go a long way in minimising the health and nutritional challenges cited in this study.

The critical theory and the decolonisation of the FTD curriculum agenda
Having established that the marginalisation of indigenous leafy vegetables in the FTD practicals has nothing to do with their nutritional deficiency but a colonial mindset cultivated over many years, we now draw on arguments proffered by the CT to decolonise this curriculum. It is critical to note that we cannot talk of decolonising the curriculum without reference to an Africanised  curriculum, a curriculum that compels learners to identify with their local environment and appreciate local indigenous diets. In support of the aforesaid, Mbembe (2016) confirms that the understanding of decolonisation is synonymous with Africanisation. Further explaining the importance of decolonising the FTD curriculum, Council of Higher Education (CHE) (2017) clarifies that the CT is geared towards a curriculum that will relate everyday life of learners to their culture and future livelihoods. In this regard, by embracing the CT, alienation of learners from their indigenous local knowledge and the environment is thwarted. As a result, global indigenous systems from the African perspective are promoted.
Drawing from the CT, we propose decolonisation from mental exploitation and destruction of indigenous values through exclusion of indigenous leafy vegetables in "O" level FTD practical lessons. To achieve this, the philosophy underpinning the curriculum content and practice should be decolonised to make it relevant to the needs of the local community and learners. From the FTD form 1-4 syllabi, practical work activities contribute to a holistic learning area; therefore, the inclusion of Indigenous African food items in recipes should be employed. Areas of improvement include authorship of books and reference materials with locals, using Indigenous foods. Zwane and Mpofu (2022) refer to the Eswatini curriculum as a case in which the decolonisation of the Home Economics curriculum in high schools (in this case FTD curriculum) has gained momentum. Therefore, decolonising the FTD curriculum should embrace the total use of exotic vegetables and their methods of preparation to an adoption of indigenous leafy vegetables in FTD syllabus.
The paper is thus inspired by Panganayi et al. (2017) who point out that the CT questions the status quo that has been institutionalised over time through colonial dominance and western curricular throughout Africa. From this understanding, the paper analyses the preferred, use and uptake of exotic vegetable varieties that have always taken centre stage in FTD practical lessons, marginalising the locally available indigenous vegetables. Curriculum Planners, classroom practitioners and learners have either willingly or unconsciously accepted the status quo which, the CT, as explained by Paraskeva (2016) needs to debunk. According to Paraskeva (2016) by operationalising and consuming colonised curriculum packages uncritically, the users become accomplices in their own exploitation. Murphy and Fleming (2010) posit that CT provides people with action plans that help them to become free from oppression hence, allowing them to have more control over their lives. On the other hand, Nichols and Allen-Brown (1996) describe CT as worth examining in establishing the emancipatory aspect of education. The understanding of decolonising the curriculum at this juncture is worth noting. (2017) explain that decolonising the curriculum is viewed as dismantling the continuation of a colonial legacy to adopt an African, indigenised syllabus that is more relevant to a changing learner population. Examples of these might be a school where learners are told that they cannot have a practical lesson because spinach is not available as it is no longer in season. A closer inspection in the school garden or in the community may reveal that a certain type of indigenous leafy vegetable is available which can successfully replace the exotic leafy vegetable, however the educator may fail to harness this product for the successful outcome of the practical instruction. It is the aim of this study to therefore emphasise that the indigenous leafy vegetables are not inferior to the exotic types. If they are used creatively and innovatively, their inclusion, sensory, health and nutritional benefits in practical lessons can outweigh those of the exotic variety.
Another aspect that is emphasised by the CT is that the curriculum must be "fit for purpose" (Mbembe, 2016). One wonders how the curriculum may be fit for purpose if it subjugates indigenous knowledge systems that define the school, community and the learners. Learners are what they are because of the environment and all that is in the environment, in this case, plants found in the environment and used as food. An appreciation of these plants brings about a sense of belonging, identity and eventually, a holistic being. Ndlovu-Gatsheni (2016, p. 6) affirms this view and points out that "Decolonisation of the curriculum is about resurfacing subjugated knowledges and recentering the knowledge project of the university from a different vantage point". Decolonisation of the curriculum is again a deliberate move of co-constructing a set of understandings rather than merely receiving instruction (Mbembe, 2016). In this way, as learners practice skills in a practical lab, they construct products and knowledge collaboratively, aided by the local indigenous leafy vegetables they identify from the community and in their classrooms. As innovation takes place using these indigenous sources, a relevant curriculum is co-constructed. The next section presents how decolonising the curriculum can work out in practice.

Suggestions for decolonising the FTD in practice
Suggestions proffered here are derived from our understanding of Indigenous knowledge systems and practices. The first way to decolonise the FTD "O" level curriculum relates to ensuring that ILVs are available as and when needed. To ensure this, the school(s) may set aside a portion of the school garden for incubating and harvesting the ILVs other than solely relying on those supplied from home. The ILVs normally grow in the open fields but are often treated as weeds. The schools should thus teach learners not to treat ILV as weeds during the first week of opening each year in a bid to pave way for planting other crops. It is during this time of the year that ILVs are abundant.
Apart from this, postharvest methods should be employed to preserve the vegetables. The process often requires cooking and drying the vegetables to preserve them. Because of some complexities associated with how this should be done, resource persons such as community leaders, agriculture extension workers, parents and other information-rich people can be invited to train teachers and learners on how the vegetables can be preserved. In the process, they will raise awareness on the importance of ILVs. The invited people can also be asked to participate in cooking lessons where preparation and preservation of the named ILVs can be demonstrated. To keep the participants captivated and arouse their interest, the school(s) can organise cooking festivals, themed on inclusion of indigenous leafy vegetables in FTD practical lessons should be encouraged either at school, cluster, district and national level. Schools should be encouraged to purchase and use of traditional equipment to effectively decolonise the FTD school curriculum. In addition, schools may set up innovation hubs (if possible) for creative preparation of indigenous leafy vegetable products and recipe development. With such a heavy investment, it is possible to have food products practically at the schools' industrial parks.
Although this study does offer some insights into the nutritional value of ILVs, their representation in the FTD "O" level curriculum and suggestions on how the curriculum can be decolonised, there are several limitations of this study. The limitations are methodological as well as empirical. There is need to interact with leaners and teachers and policy stakeholders in situ to understand why ILV are underrepresented and how this could be dealt with.

Conclusion
The inclusion of indigenous leafy vegetables is crucial in the FTD curriculum. Its inclusion gives identity and a strong sense of heritage and Africanism. The term, "indigenous leafy vegetables" is silent in the FTD "O" level form 1-4 syllabi. The curriculum refers to the term "indigenous" in some of its sections. Regarding the number of times the term "indigenous" or more specifically, "indigenous leafy vegetables" is mentioned in the FTD curriculum, one is of the view that the frequency has an impact on how much value is placed on the referred vegetable type. The higher the frequency of relevant themes found in the syllabus, the higher the impact. The lower the frequency of indigenous leafy vegetables found in the syllabus, the lower the impact of the vegetables' inclusion in the curriculum. Moreover, the impact indicates how many strides are still needed to decolonise the FTD curriculum such that it is fit for purpose, learner and the heritage philosophy. To this end, the O-level FTD curriculum should be decolonised. For this to be achieved, a more robust decolonisation culture should be promoted. This includes involving the school in cultivating indigenous leafy vegetables and establishing outlets selling indigenous dishes.