Roles and responsibilities of sign language interpreters in Saudi deaf society

Abstract This study addressed the role and responsibilities of sign language interpreters in the deaf society in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia (KSA). We investigated the possible differences in the roles and responsibilities among certified and uncertified sign language interpreters for the Deaf and hard of hearing (DHH) in the KSA, how the roles of the sign language interpreters are assigned, and where they provide their services. For these purposes, we used the cognitive model of interpreting by Stewart et al. (1998) and the self-sufficiency theory by Bandura (1986) as a theoretical foundation. Moreover, we conducted six (06) semi-structured interviews with sign language interpreters for the DHH active in the KSA and used the thematic analysis qualitative approach to analyze data. Findings indicate that the role of the interpreters is not limited to interpretation since it also includes among others teaching, class assistance, providing information about the hearing community, and taking care of hearing aids. We also found that these roles and whether the interpreter is certified or not depend on where they offered their services and that the interpreters in the KSA work in several fields that include educational settings, legal and criminal settings, healthcare settings, and other diverse settings. These findings provide a platform for future research on how to improve sign language services for the DHH in the Saudi context.


Introduction
People with hearing disabilities often require interpreters to unravel the complex spoken-written language and transform it into a visual formulation for practical understanding (Laviosa & Davies, Ahmed Abdullaha Alzahrani ABOUT THE AUTHOR In 2017, I received my doctorate degree from Lamar University, Texas, USA. I work as an associate professor in the Department of Special Education at the College of Education, Majmaah University, Saudi Arabia. I also work as a sign language interpreter in Saudi Arabia. I work as a consultant to the university's vice and supervisor of the Services Center for People with Disabilities at Majmaah University. I work with a team of educated deaf people and professional interpreters on a number of research related to Saudi sign language and the culture and society of the deaf. The current research is one of the research that will be relied upon in the upcoming national projects. My research interests are interpretation, sign language, deaf education, and early intervention. 2020). Hence the importance of these interpreters, which in return is behind the significant body of research done on their roles, their qualifications, their skills and training, and their effectiveness. Furthermore, successful interpreting for the Deaf and hard of hearing (DHH) requires a set of different skills that includes among others a specialization in interpreting, competence in linguistics, management of messages, and cultural capability, which allows the interpreters to perform various interrelated tasks (Smith, 2013). Accordingly, the best interpreting practices require collaboration and the ability to perform diversified tasks. However, such tasks and roles are yet to be clearly defined in the Saudi Arabian context. Currently, these concepts are vague and ambiguous due to the diversity of work environments and insufficiencies in empirical investigations (Witter-Merithew et al., 2010).
Thereby, interpreters struggle to navigate the educational setting successfully and among different roles partially due to the ambiguity surrounding the roles expected of them from one educational setting to another (Johnson et al., 2014). These roles become increasingly difficult when talking about the roles of sign language interpreters in Saudi Arabia. Therefore, there is a need for dedicated research on sign language interpreters' role and responsibilities in Saudi Arabia.
Subsequently, interpreters struggle to successfully navigate the educational setting partially due to the ambiguity surrounding the roles expected from them that can differ from one educational setting to another (Johnson et al., 2014). Comprehending these roles becomes even more challenging in Saudi Arabia's context due to the lack of adequate studies. Hence, the need for dedicated research on sign language interpreters' role in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia (KSA).

Statement of the problem
There has been relatively little literature published on the role of sign language interpreters for the DHH. In this vein,  suggested that even though the roles of interpreters seem to have been documented, confusion still exists in the literature around the scope of these roles. While there is an agreement that interpreters offer sign language interpretation as their core service, little focus has been channeled to their additional duties and how they manage these tasks. Subsequently, in many cases, employers do not require a minimum qualification to recruit educational interpreters, which is reflected in the autonomy of the ways these interpreters perform their tasks. For instance, in the KSA, several governmental and private agencies and service providers do not require specific certification for sign language interpreters. Hence, the need to interrogate the roles of sign language interpreters in the KSA's deaf society context (Alzahrani, 2017).

Theoretical framework
The theoretical foundation of this paper was the cognitive model of interpreting by Stewart et al. (1998). According to this model, interpretation is communication. Thus, a cognitive process involving communication and interpretation must be developed. Moreover, there should be the development of other processes including understanding the nature of the language being used, production of meanings and messages, comprehending what the other party means, analyzing it, encoding it, and then passing it along to the target party. The initial stages of the model entail the interpreter decoding and understanding the message communicated, then they analyze and encoding it. The model simplifies the role of an interpreter as that of interpreting, although it goes through various cognitive processes.
The study also relied on the self-efficacy theory proposed by Bandura (1986). The theory defines people's beliefs regarding their ability to deliver a task based on their judgment about the ability to deliver and not their skills. In other words, the theory suggests that an individual's ability to perform a particular role does not depend on their skills but rather on their judgment.

Purpose of the study
This study investigates the role and responsibilities of sign language interpreters in the deaf society in the KSA. It aims to determine whether there is a difference in the roles and responsibilities among certified and uncertified sign language interpreters for the DHH in the KSA. Additionally, we aim to define how the roles of the sign language interpreters are assigned and where they provide their services.

Research questions
Based on its purpose, the study sought to answer the following questions: (1) What are the roles of sign language interpreters for the DHH in the KSA?
(2) Is there a difference in the roles between the certified and uncertified sign language interpreters for the DHH in the KSA?
(3) How the roles of sign language interpreters for DHD in the KSA are assigned and where do they provide their services?

Limitations
This study dealt with some limitations in the pursuit of achieving its objectives. Firstly, a qualitative approach was adopted where randomly sampled interpreters took part in the study, and due to difficulties in reaching all of them in person, some of the interviews were carried out online. Another limitation of the study was establishing that the included sample size was representative of the target population. Furthermore, the number of studies that focused on the role of interpreters in the DHH context in the KSA is particularly limited.

Delimitations
The study was limited to the context of sign language interpretation in the KSA, specifically the Saudi deaf community. Therefore, our findings may only resonate in contexts similar to that of the KSA. Moreover, the study defined the roles of sign language interpreters for the DHH in the KSA and whether there exists a difference in the roles among the certified and uncertified sign language interpreters, as well as establishing how the roles are assigned and where the sign language interpreters provide their services. Hence, we did not investigate any other phenomena that might be related to the above variables.

Deaf and hard of hearing in Saudi Arabian context
The KSA culture comprehends both Islamic and Arabic foundations. Both of these backgrounds recognize people with special needs such as DHH and call for the protection of their rights (Alamri, 2017). In the year 2008, the Saudi government signed the Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities. Correspondingly, King Salman Centre of Disability Research (2014) emphasized that the disability policy in the KSA recognizes that people with disabilities have equal rights to other citizens across various professional services and should be supported to advance their abilities and be prolific members of society.
Furthermore, The statistics published by the Ministry of Education in Saudi Arabia (2008) showed that since the enactment of inclusive education policies, up to 78 percent of DHH students in the KSA attend regular schools, and only 22 percent attend special schools, a demonstration that the policies in the country support DHH. Nonetheless, not all the DHH fundamental rights are thoroughly enjoyed in the KSA as a result of the communication barriers between these individuals and some of their relatives. As illustrated by Alqahtani (2015), communication barriers create a loophole in the enforcement and demand for fundamental rights.
Davies (2020) argue that the role of an interpreter is dynamic because they cannot deliberately select what tasks to engage in since it is the physiognomies of their interaction with clients that dictate the suitability of the several approaches and roles available to them. While  who investigated the scarcity of language interpreters for the deaf and the hearing impaired in the United States of America (USA) suggested that even though the roles and responsibilities of interpreters seem to have been documented, the literature suggested that confusion still exists when it comes to the interpreters' roles.
On the other hand, a few studies documented the additional tasks interpreters perform or how they manage them. In this regard, Stewart and Kluwin (1996) conducted a literature review on educational interpretation for the DHH in a school setting aiming at investigating the discrepancies between the 15 guidelines for educational interpreters in schools and programs for the DHH across the USA and the actual occurrences in the classroom. To achieve that, the study looked into the interpreter's production of the message, the reception of the message by the student, and the additional responsibilities of the interpreters. Their results demonstrated that besides interpretation, interpreters play the role of classroom assistants, provide a linkage between the DHH and non-deaf students, tutor sign language, act as members of the education teams, and monitor the work of DHH students. In the same vein, a report by the USA Registry of Interpreters for the Lawson (2012), demonstrated that apart from interpreting, the interpreters are supposed to participate in training, take care of hearing aids, tutor, provide sign language support to students without hearing issues, and deliver information to the hearing community. In contrast, Jones (2004) suggested that besides interpreting, interpreters are concerned with consulting, tutoring, and classroom aid. Similarly, Russell (2013) argued that the role of a sign language interpreter ranges from making preparations for interpreting, cooperation with other staff, interpreting, analyzing personal interpretations and professional performance, informing other professional staff about interpreting, as well as taking part in meetings.
Nonetheless, several studies have addressed the role of sign language interpreters. Yet their results demonstrate that the variety in these roles was based on the interpreters' context, certifications, and training. In this context, Brimm (2018) explored interpreters' roles and collaborating patterns in K-12 education in the USA using a national survey on various disciplines such as educational interpreters, teachers of the deaf, special education teachers, and speech-language pathologists. Moreover, interviews were used to get qualitative data for in-depth analysis. Results indicated that the roles of interpreters and various collaborations were not limited to studentrelated information sharing, attending meetings, building rapport, training, and solving problems in their field, as they expanded to other dimensions of individual interaction. Similarly, Fitzmaurice (2017) cross-examined the uncertified educational interpreters in rural schools in the USA. The study relied on ethnographic interviews and field observations in gathering qualitative data. Through content analysis procedures, the author found that the interpreters' roles are to prepare the teaching materials, take part in interpretations, interact with different stakeholders, and instruct the deaf. The study also demonstrated that interpreters operate with great autonomy.
In the same vein, Johnson et al. (2014) targeted 1,607 education interpreters in the USA to uncover the role of educational interpreters. Their results indicated that although interpreting was their primary role, interpreters also provided tutoring services, prepared instruction materials, and helped students with their classwork. Likewise, Smith (2013) interrogated interpreters working with grades 5 and 6 about their roles and found that they were not just confined to interpreting, but also to interacting with other teachers and students and performing various activities similar to other teachers. These results align with what  suggest in their examination of the access to post-secondary education through sign language interpreting that focused on 23 interpreters, 105 deaf students, and 22 hearing students, where they found that interpreters' roles cut across interpreting, analyzing personal interpretations, and taking part in meetings and other defined.
Moreover, Antia and Kreimeyer (2001) emphasized similar findings in their qualitative crossexamination of data from both certified and uncertified interpreters in a rural setting in the US. Their results supported the argument that sign language interpreters' roles extend beyond interpretation to additional duties such as teaching sign language, providing clarifications on directions and instructions, as well as tutoring. While Jones (2004) explored through qualitative interrogations the role of interpreters from their perspective, the perspective of the regular teacher, and that of a special teacher. His results showed that slightly above half of the interviewed interpreters were certified and their roles ranged from interpreting, consulting, tutoring, and classroom aid. The study also demonstrated a consensus that the roles of interpreters went beyond interpretation though they all should be certified.

Methods
According to Kumar (2018), research strategy can either be deductive, inductive, or both. In a deductive approach, there is a need for deep interrogation of the concept, data collection, and analysis to build a theoretical understanding of the problem. This study aimed to elaborate on the roles of sign language interpreters for the DHH in the KSA. Correspondingly, we used a deductive approach in the different steps of stating the problem, collecting data, and developing a theoretical understanding based on the data analysis.

Recruitment of participants
Our sample included six active interpreters for the DHH in the KSA. We relied on the snowballing method to reach them. 50% of these participants (three) were certified interpreters while the other 50% had no certification yet possessed experience in interpreting for the DHH that exceeds 10 years. The locations where the participants offer their services vary in terms of urbanism. Furthermore, we adopted the following criteria: • The lowest accepted level of education should be a bachelor's degree; • Participants do not have to possess an interpreting certification/licensing; • Participants must have an interpreting experience that exceeds 10 years; • Their geographic location can either be rural or urban.
Regarding the sample size, it is argued that in interview-based research the number of participants depends on the data reaching the saturation stage, bearing in mind the quality of the participants over quantity. Thus, a range of 4 to 20 participants can be appropriate (Boddy, 2016). Moreover, the saturation of data criterion is widely accepted as a methodological principle in qualitative research. Saturation means that enough data has been collected to fulfill the needs of the research, and any additional data will have little to no contribution to drawing conclusions (Gentles et al., 2015). In this study, we did not rely on any numerical criteria, yet we focused on the development and saturation of the data. The point of data saturation was reached at a sample of 6 participants since new participants will not add any value. We decided to stop collecting data at this stage and started the analysis process.

Sampling
In this study, we relied on the snowball sampling approach. Snowball sampling is a non-probability method that involves the participants recruiting or suggesting future participants from their connections (Flick, 2015). Although there exists a variety of other approaches one can choose from when sampling such as; simple random sampling, stratified random sampling, purposive sampling, and convenient sampling, Black (1999) suggested that snowballing is a superior sampling method when it comes to flexibility, particularly if the researcher is having difficulties recruiting participants. In our case, snowballing enabled us to recruit interpreters with diverse backgrounds (working in different settings and institutions, various personal experiences, and spread across rural and urban settings in the country), which allowed us in return to determine whether the roles they play vary based on such characteristics.

Validation
Due to the scarcity of research, very little is known about the roles of sign language interpreters for the DHH in the KSA. Subsequently, this study relied on a semi-structured interview guide to collect data from the participants whereas interviews allow in-depth analysis of insufficiently explored questions. Moreover, Brewster et al. (2017) argued that interviews preserve consistency based on the reviewed literature. While Bowen (2009) added that unstructured interviews allow the participants to provide a free-flowing description of the studied phenomenon, besides enabling the researcher to approach the interviewees from different angles while focusing on the same questions.
Before using the questions in the main survey, we examined the content validity through peer examination (field testing). This method allows experts to validate the content of the questions in the field (Creswell, 2017). We asked randomly sampled interpreters for the DHH who have been in the field inside the KSA for more than 35 years to evaluate the questions in terms of consistency with the research questions. The experts assured that the questions were sound, clear, and consistent. Eventually, the unstructured interview included the five questions stated below: (1) Please describe your demographic characteristics: your age, your highest level of education, and your interpreting work experience; (2) Explain where you currently offer your interpreting services for the DHH; (3) Have you received any certifications to practice DHH interpreting? Explain why or why not?
(4) Describe your day-to-day activities regarding the sign language interpretation for the DHH; (5) How are the above-described tasks currently assigned?

Data collection procedures
The interviews realized in this study were conducted online or via telephone. We started data collection after requesting the participants' consent to both participate in the study and be recorded. The first participant was randomly selected. Then, they suggested a colleague, and so forth the sample grew through snowballing as previously described. The interviews were conducted in Arabic and recorded for easy transcription afterward.
The duration of each interview was approximately 15-20 minutes whereas the data collection took three days. We gave the interviewees codes for identification (1, 2, 3, 4, 5, and 6) to conceal their identities. The recorded interviews were then transcribed into text and then double-checked for accuracy. To ensure confidentiality, the data was saved with a password on a laptop that restricts access.

Data analysis procedures
After the transcription of the audio material drawn from the interviews, we used the thematic analysis method to analyze the collected qualitative data. Thematic analysis is a qualitative method for identifying and analyzing patterns or themes within data (Clarke & Braun, 2013). The method involves searching for and identifying common themes or categories (Vaismoradi et al., 2013), it consists of critically reviewing the responses to identify the main themes using deductive reasoning, which enables the researcher to utilize a pre-existing theory to test a new one (Thomas, 2003). We identified the main themes in our data based on the responses given by the interviewees.

Ethical considerations
During this study, we spared no effort to comply with the necessary ethical practices. Firstly, we clarified the purpose of the research to the participants and assured them that their responses would only be used within an academic setting. Accordingly, the information they provided would not be used for any reason other than scientific research. We also explained to the participants that they are free to respond/ decline to respond to any question they feel uncomfortable addressing. Moreover, we gave the participants the option to pull out of the study at any time during the interview. Finally, we made sure that the participants' identity remains anonymous to protect their privacy and the information they provided.

Results
This study investigated the roles of sign language interpreters in the KSA deaf society using a qualitative approach. For data collection, we designed a semi-structured interview that included five questions. After transcription, the generated texts were further analyzed to draw and identify emerging themes. Subsequently, we coded and organized the data. This part of the paper presents the results of the thematic analysis of our data.

Demographic background
The six participants in the study had diverse demographic characteristics, as shown in Table 1. They differed based on ethnic background, gender, age, level of education, certification, work experience, and geographic location. Correspondingly, their participation was from diverse backgrounds and experiences which enhances credibility.
As demonstrated in Table 1, our participants were predominantly females with a 66% ratio of the total participants. Moreover, the interpreters we interviewed were all from the age range of 29-47 and had at least 11 years of work experience. The results of the thematic analysis for the collected data are presented in the next section.

Results of the thematic analysis
For analysis purposes, we first identified the main themes that can be assigned to the main research questions. Instead of using a code to designate each main theme, we used the term "research question number" for each main theme to facilitate reading the results. Moreover, we used several sub-themes based on the coded results for the first and last main themes, while we only assigned two sub themes to the second main theme due to the nature of the second question of the study. Table 2 illustrates a general view of the thematic analysis results.
In the following sections, we address each one of the themes illustrated in table 3.

Research question one
In the introduction section of this paper, we presented the first question of the study as follows:

What are the roles of sign language interpreters for the DHH in the KSA?
To address this question, we asked the following question during the interviews: • Describe your day-to-day activities related to the sign language interpretation for the DHH.
The sub-themes related to this question were developed by summarizing the responses and establishing underlying patterns and meanings (Creswell, 2017). Thus, to develop sub-themes, the responses were reviewed for similarities and differences and eventually sorted out into seven subthemes, as presented in Figure 1. Figure 1, interpreting is seen by the participants as the core role of interpreters. However, five other different roles were suggested in our data. We discuss these in the following sections.

As shown in
4.2.1.1. Interpreting. Our findings indicated that the primary role played by the interpreters for the DHH in the KSA was interpreting. All the participants, irrespective of their certification status, indicated that they worked in at least some form of sign communication. In this role, the interpreters focus on directing attention, interpreting wide interactions with non-deaf peers, and keeping track of when and where their intervention was required. Some contributions from the participants in this context are as follows: "My daily line of tasks revolves above all around interpreting" (participant 1).

"The nature of my work is primarily to interpret" (participant 5).
In this respect, we noticed that some interpreters explained how they occasionally face some challenges in dealing with new vocabulary that was unexpectedly introduced. Some examples of these concerns are as follows:  The participants emphasized that they engage in teaching, tutoring, and providing classroom aid and assistance to preschools, elementary and high schools, colleges, and universities. We noticed a consensus among participants that working in different environments allowed them to get familiar with the different challenges of the job. For example, in higher education settings, demands are more advanced compared to lower levels of education. Some quotes related to this point are as follows: "Working in the education sector, I was involved in tutoring and assisting in the classroom" (participant 2).
"Apart from interpreting, I also tutor in a college where I provide services to Deaf students" (participant 4).

Consulting and providing information about the DHH Community.
Some of the participants, particularly the certified ones, provided consultancy services in the organization where they offer their services or in a contractual on-demand fashion in different other settings such as legal, medical, and non-profit organizations. Some of them also helped those who needed interpreting services in the community to find a provider from their colleagues. The task of consultation also involved reviewing sign language materials, authoring books on sign language interpreting, as well as providing guidance to relevant policy-makers. An example of the noted contributions in this regard is as noted below:  Figure. 1. Roles of the interpreters for the DHH in the KSA.

Training and meetings.
Our findings indicated that the participants were also engaged in training activities. Accordingly, they trained people from different statuses in sign language, some of whom came from different backgrounds in life such as private practitioners, students, as well as public officers. The participants also participated in different meetings related to their work in pursuit of building their capacity and networking. An example of the coded quotes in this regard is set forth below: "In my line of duties, I also train those interested in the sign language for the DHH" (participant 1).

Research question two
In the introduction section, we presented the second question of the study as follows: • Is there a difference in the roles between the certified and uncertified sign language interpreters for the DHH in the KSA?
To address this question, we asked the following questions during the interviews: • Have you received any certificates or licenses to practice DHH interpreting? Explain why or why not; • Describe your day-to-day activities related to the sign language interpretation for the DHH.
Findings indicated that whether interpreters were certified or not varied depending on the settings where they offered their services. Thereafter, most of them focused on being certified as a response to some specific requirement in the settings they aspired to work in. For example, some fields such as legal and medical usually require certification, while education didn't need any certification. The desire to be certified, therefore, depended on the settings where they were offering their services. In this regard, we present the following quote: "I provide my services across different settings, some of which need certification, and others don't. For instance, in my line of work in criminal justice settings and educational settings, a certification is unnecessary. Thus, it is sufficient to bring an obtained certificate in any course, even if the duration of that course is one week" (participant 1).
When providing services in the education and criminal justice settings in the KSA, certification was not necessary. Interpreters were allowed to work in formal and informal education settings without special courses, certifications, or a code of professional conduct. Moreover, when working in the criminal justice services, such as interpreting for victims, inmates, and during hearings, the interpreter doesn't have to be certified. An example of the quotes in this regard is as follows: "In interpreting in the criminal justice systems, not much emphasis is placed on credentials and certification compared to other settings such as legal and medical settings" (participant 6).

Research question three
In the introduction section, we presented the third question of the study as follows: • How the roles of sign language interpreters for DHD in the KSA are assigned and where do they provide their services?
To address this question, we asked the following questions during the interviews: • Explain where you are currently offering your interpreting services (working) for the DHH; • How are tasks currently assigned?
The sub-themes for this study question were developed by summarizing the responses and arranging them into 4 axes as illustrated in Figure 2.
As demonstrated in Figure 2, the education sector was the primary setting where the participants provided their services. We discuss the illustrated results in the following sections.

Educational settings.
Our findings indicated that all the participants have worked in an education setting at one point in their careers, whether it was a preschool, an elementary or secondary school, or a post-secondary environment such as colleges and universities. In these settings, one daunting factor for interpreters was the need for higher qualifications as one goes upper in the education system. For example, working at a university was more challenging compared to working at a preschool. An example of the participants' opinions in this regard is cited below.
"My career spans from offering services across different sectors such as education, healthcare, and legal settings. Some of these settings are demanding while others are not as demanding" (participant 3).
"I have worked in various settings such as education, healthcare, and legal" (participant 4).

Legal and criminal settings.
Our findings demonstrated that interpreters for the DHH in the KSA worked in the legal and criminal settings as they offered their services during the arrest, the hearing, and the detention operations involving deaf inmates and defendants. Interpreters are also expected to offer their services in scenarios involving medical checkups for deaf defendants and translation of prisons' rules for the inmates. Moreover, they had provided their services in courtroom proceedings, interactions with the police, and in the attorneys' offices. However, the participants emphasized that they were required to obtain at least one course that ends with a certification to interpret in a legal environment. They were also supposed to be certified to work in these settings. Some quotes from our data on this point as cited below.
"I offer my services in different settings, but I am mostly based in the courts . . . I am hired as an interpreter in courts about five times a month, and two to three times a week in police stations" (participant 1).
"I have also come across an assignment that required me to interpret for a client who was interacting with the police as a witness to a crime" (participant 5).
"Besides the legal environment, I am also supposed to be present to translate prison rules for the inmates" (participant 2).
"For those being booked and arrested, I have to provide interpretation services . . . I've been called to translate late at night in many cases" (participant 1).

4.2.3.3.
Healthcare service settings. Through our analysis, we found that sign language interpreters in the KSA also worked in medical settings such as private physicians, campus infirmaries, and hospital settings where they were either contracted or permanent employees. To provide services in this sector, there are no recommended minimum standards or statutory policies for interpreters in the KSA. However, the participants said they prepared for a career in this sector through mentorship, professional internship, and peer interactions. An example of the contributions in this regard are as follows: Settings for the DHH interpretation "I provide interpretation services for those that are seeking medical help in private hospitals.

Some of my colleagues in the same line of services don't have any certification" (participant 4).
"When it comes to providing services to private practitioners in the healthcare sector, they do not ask for many certifications" (participant 2).

Diverse settings.
Our findings also established that the role of interpreters for DHH in the KSA was open to a variety of other tasks. Meaning that even though they centered their services around the previously mentioned settings, they were also open to a variety of other environments. In this respect, there was a consensus among the participants that their roles were not predetermined. Thus, they offered services in all the varied settings they were called upon. These domains included appointments with managers, helping the DHH to apply for a job, personal interviews in different situations, and interpreting in conferences, meetings, workshops, as well as television. An example of these contributions is as set forth below. "My roles are versatile, depending on the demand" (participant 6).

Roles of sign language interpreters for the DHH in the KSA
As established in the results section, interpreters for the DHH in the KSA carry out several additional tasks besides direct sign language interpretation. These tasks include tutoring, offering classroom aid, membership in education teams, consulting, and providing information about the hearing community. Interpreters also take part in training and participate in meetings, take care of hearing aids, prepare for interpreting activities, analyze personal interactions, and track professional performance. These various roles confirm the argument by  that even though the roles and responsibilities of interpreters seem to have been documented, there still exists confusion on the scope of these roles. This analysis is in line with that of Fitzmaurice (2017) who argued that interpreters' roles include not only interpreting but also tutoring, consulting, and working as a classroom aid. Similarly, Stewart and Kluwin (1996) proposed that in addition to interpreting, interpreters for the DHH also work as classroom assistants, provide a linkage between deaf and non-deaf students, act as members of the education teams, and monitor the work and findings of deaf students. Moreover, the interpreters took part in training, cared for hearing aids, provided sign language support to students without hearing issues, and provided information about the hearing community. Thus, as Russell (2013) pointed out, the roles of interpreters range from making preparations for interpreting, collaborating with other faculty members, analyzing personal interpretations and professional performance, informing other professionals about interpreting, and taking part in meetings.

Difference in the roles between the certified and uncertified sign language interpreters for the DHH in the KSA
Concerning certification, our findings emphasized that the roles of interpreters for the DHH varied depending on the settings where they offered their services. Some fields, such as legal and medical settings, required certification, while others, such as education, do not necessarily require certification. Consequently, the interpreters' desire to get certified depends on the sector where they want to be active. For example, a certification may not be required if a certain interpreter aspires to work in the education sector and the non-criminal justice settings in the KSA. Moreover, due to their scarcity, interpreters for the DHH in the KSA were permitted to work in formal and informal education settings without education, certification, or a code of professional conduct. These findings match with the views of Alamri (2017) who argued that the roles of interpreters in the KSA depend on the settings where they provide their services.

Where sign language interpreters for the DHH in the KSA provide their services
Our findings highlighted that the education field was one of the areas where sign language interpreters predominantly offer their services in the KSA. These results come in accordance with what Humphrey and Alcom (2007) suggested in their investigation of the work environments for interpreters where they indicated that all the interpreters who participated in their study had worked in an education setting. However, Walker and Shaw (2011) found that even though most interpreters had worked in the higher education sectors, they were neglected and not appreciated, especially those without certification.
Furthermore, our findings emphasized that the Saudi interpreters for the DHH offered their services in legal and criminal settings as well. However, they are not used to interpreting important content during the arrest and the detainment for investigation, as well as the medical checkups for the defendants and interpreting the prison's rules for the inmates.
Another setting where the interpreters in the KSA offered their services is the healthcare sector, such as in private physicians' cabinets. There are no recommended minimum standards or statutory policies for interpreters in KSA to provide services in this sector. These findings are in accordance with what Phelan and Parkman (1995) indicated in some medical settings in the USA where sign language interpreters are not required to be certified.

Conclusion
The findings of this study confirm that the roles of sign language interpreters in the KSA are widely diverse and typically include interpreting, tutoring, classroom aid, membership in education teams, consulting and providing information about the hearing community, training, participating in meetings, taking care of hearing aids, preparing for interpreting, and analyzing personal interpretations and professional performance. The interpreters' certification status shapes the execution of these roles; while some settings required certificates, others do not. Consequently, it was up to the interpreters, without being compelled by any authority, to seek certification based on the fields they aspire to work in. The study also concluded that in the KSA, interpreters for the DHH were permitted to work in formal and informal education settings without education, certification, or a code of professional conduct since there was none no availability of a body enforcing these requirements.
The settings within which sign language interpreters for the DHH in the KSA offered their services included among others formal and informal education sector, legal and criminal settings, and the healthcare sector. KSA's interpreters are also open to offering their services in other settings whenever the need arises. For example, they can attend appointments with managers, help people with hearing disabilities with job applications, support personal interviews in different environments, and offer interpreting services in conferences, meetings, and workshops, as well as in television programs.

Implications for practice and policy making
Based on the findings of this study, it is recommended that policymakers in the education sector in the KSA come up with policies and criteria to set the minimum requirements for sign language interpreters for the DHH to provide their services in this sector. Arranging such requirements will serve in managing quality and setting a potential avenue to improve the education of deaf children and youth in the KSA.
Generally, there is a need for appropriate oversight and management of interpreting services in the KSA. The provision of sign language interpreting in certain settings such as education and healthcare without control, minimum standards, or statutory policies results in an unregulated autonomy of uncertified interpreters, which may have serious implications that extend well beyond the quality or efficiency of the interpretation. The DHH may also be affected. As a result, there is a need for policymakers in the Saudi government to ensure that these essential services are well-regulated and that services are provided under well-stipulated national standards. Such actions can minimize irregularities and settle quality issues.

Funding
The author received no direct funding for this research.