Toddler and preschool teachers’ beliefs and perceptions about the use of developmentally appropriate practice

Abstract A developmentally appropriate learning environment provides learning experiences that support whole child development as young children are provided with opportunities to engage in meaningful experiences that promote inquiry, exploration, problem solving, and discovery. The intent of developmentally appropriate practice (DAP) is shifting the K–12 pushdown curriculum in early childhood education (ECE) to a child-centered approach to learning. Qualification in fields unrelated to ECE might result in a lack of knowledge about child growth and development and in childcare centers functioning like K–12 programs. The purpose of this qualitative explanatory multi-case study was to examine toddler and preschool teachers’ beliefs and perceptions about the use of DAP within toddler and preschool classrooms. Data were collected from a purposeful sample of 16 teachers on their beliefs and perceptions about classroom practices and the forces that shape such practices in toddler and preschool classrooms. Findings suggest that a disturbing amount of toddler and preschool teachers endorsed a K–12 pushdown curriculum with the belief that young children should be able to sit and complete worksheets.


PUBLIC INTEREST STATEMENT
This research study explores the beliefs of toddler and preschool teachers regarding how they care for and teach young children. The researchers were interested in the degree to which their beliefs support developmentally appropriate practice (DAP) and the extent to which their classroom practices adopted a K-12 approach to working with young children (teaching specific academic skills in isolation, direct instruction, and solitary, passive learning). DAP focuses on whole-child development, learning through play, and matching child-centered expectations to each child's overall development. Results indicated that a disproportionate number of the teachers believed in and practiced a K-12 approach to the care and education of young children. This research study is significant in examining the match between the developmental needs of young children and how we care for and educate them. It addresses the broader issue of the downward trajectory of K-12 curricula and expectations in many infant and toddler programs.

Introduction
The early childhood years are critical times in young children's lives because neurological networks are forming (Blakemore & Frith, 2005;Klingberg, 2013;Rushton et al., 2010) and the foundation for future cognitive, language, social, emotional, and physical development is being laid. The early childhood years are designated as birth to age 8 (Copple & Bredekamp, 2009). Young toddlers (16-26 months) are developing self-awareness, language skills, physical control, and emotional regulation. Older toddlers (24-35 months) are learning to play together but are not yet able to sit still, engage in group work, or focus on a task for any extended period of time (Copple & Bredekamp, 2009;New Jersey Council for Young Children, 2013;Washington, 2013). Preschool children (3-5 years) are developing language skills, physical control, self-awareness, emotional regulation, and learning through exploration but still require regular movement opportunities and whole-child learning (Washington, 2013).
The National Association for the Education of Young Children's (National Association for the Education of Young Children, 2009, 2020) position statement outlines best classroom practices that can help teachers of young children understand how to implement DAP in their classrooms. National Association for the Education of Young Children (2020) position statement highlights the importance of children actively engaging in exploration and inquiry-based learning as they learn through play. This is an essential approach for supporting whole child (socially, emotionally, physically, language, and cognitive) development. The foundation for DAP is based on constructivism and the child-centered approach to learning (Hegde & Cassidy, 2009;Pyle & DeLuca, 2013). With this approach, teachers function as facilitators, capitalizing on teachable moments and considering each child's interests and abilities to guide children's learning. Conceptualizing teachers' use of DAP in the classroom is embedded in their beliefs, perceptions, and qualifications.

DAP in early childhood education
The 1987 guidelines for DAP were published as a direct reaction to the increasing tendency for teacher-imposed academic instruction in ECE programs in the U.S. (Copple & Bredekamp, 2009). Pressure from a K-12 pushdown curriculum originating from No Child Left Behind (NCLB) resulted in the growing trend towards academic expectations in ECE programs (Bagnato & Ho, 2006;Gallant, 2009). The intent was to shift the K-12 push-down curriculum in ECE programs to a childcentered approach based on research that supports the child-centered approach to learning (Abu Taleb, 2013;Copple & Bredekamp, 2009). National Association for the Education of Young Children's (2020) updated statement on DAP underscores the implementation of developmentally appropriate learning experiences that advance high-quality early learning for young children that incorporates a standard-based approach to learning.
Based on the leading theorists of the field and current research on brain development about young children and how they grow, develop, and learn, DAP takes into consideration what is known about each individual child from a socio-cultural and holistic perspective in order to design classroom practices that address each child's individual developmental needs (Copple & Bredekamp, 2009; National Association for the Education of Young Children, 2020). According to the DAP document, the first step in engaging in DAP when working with and teaching young children is awareness of children's development and that each child enters the classroom with individual differences (Bredekamp, 2010). Therefore, a one-size-fits-all approach to curriculum and instruction is inappropriate.
A DAP play-based social learning environment provides learning experiences that support whole child development as children are provided with opportunities to engage in everyday experiences that promote critical brain development, social and emotional development, inquiry, exploration, problem solving, and discovery (Jechura et al., 2016). Experiences that promote exploration and discovery help with the production of bio-chemical changes in the brain thus aiding in synaptic growth (Klingberg, 2013), which helps children make connections to their learning experiences as they develop skills that help them make sense of the world around them. Bredekamp (2010) highlighted an essential basis for understanding the purpose of DAP: the importance of establishing age appropriate expectations that encourage teachers to engage in intentional teaching. Teachers should establish appropriate goals for individual children, observe children's learning, and modify classroom practices. Researchers have pointed out that due to recent educational shifts, new teacher qualification, and adaptation to a standard-based approach to early childhood curriculum, DAP is coming under increased scrutiny and outright rejection (Bassok et al., 2016;Pyle & DeLuca, 2013). The current trend in the early childhood field in the U.S. is a downward extension of the K-12 approach to curriculum, instruction, assessment, and support of student learning (Bagnato & Ho, 2006;Graue et al., 2014). Using this approach can be harmful to children's social and emotional development and inhibit their overall cognitive development and learning (Donaldson, 2019).

Conceptual framework
The framework for DAP is a broad overarching concept that is grounded in research on child growth and development and the theoretical contributions of early childhood pioneers such as Jean Piaget and Lev Vygotsky (Copple & Bredekamp, 2009). A fundamental variation in theoretical ideology is that Piaget argued that development drives learning, whereas Vygotsky argued that learning drives development (Fowler, 2017;Semmar & Al-Thani, 2015). Although Piaget and Vygotsky embraced different viewpoints, their contributions are instrumental in helping us understand young children's learning.
Piaget's main focus was in studying cognitive development of children (Simatwa, 2010). Piaget's work in studying cognitive development lead to his theory that claims children create their own reality. It also contributes to the belief that children's interactions with the social and physical environment result in children constructing their own understanding of the world around them (Mooney, 2013;Simatwa, 2010;Vaksalla & Hodshire, 2013). Piaget described children as moving through four interrelated stages of cognitive development: (a) sensorimotor stage (birth to 2 years); (b) preoperational stage (2 years to 7 years); (c) concrete operational stage (7 years to 11 years); and (d) formal operational stage (11 years and beyond; Ginsburg & Opper, 1988;Vaksalla & Hodshire, 2013).
As children actively interact with their social and physical environment, they create schemes or structures that change continually as children organize their thinking and intellectually make adaptations (Piaget & Inhelder, 1969). Children create these mental schemas by way of assimilation (using prior knowledge to make meaningful connections), accommodation (using existing knowledge to alter thinking), and equilibrium (exhibiting a change in perception; S. Kim, 2015;Vaksalla & Hodshire, 2013). Piaget's theory of cognitive development highlights the constructivist approach to learning in which teachers guide children's cognitive processing as they actively interact with the social and physical environment rather than provide direct instruction (Mooney, 2013).
Vygotsky's groundbreaking work in social learning theory is pivotal in providing knowledge about the role that social interaction and language plays in understanding children's learning (Cole et al., 1978;Kirch, 2014;Mahn, 1999;Semmar & Al-Thani, 2015). Piaget believed they were interconnected, but concepts came first, then labels. Vygotsky believed that knowledge is constructed by way of socio-cultural interaction with peers and adults as expressed through language (Berk & Winsler, 1995;Mooney, 2013;Vaksalla & Hodshire, 2013). Like Piaget, Vygotsky believed in the notion that children are active participants in knowledge construction (Hedges, 2012;Nilsson et al., 2017;Piaget, 1950;Semmar & Al-Thani, 2015).
While Piaget placed an emphasis on the interrelationship between children and their environment and asserted that children's cognitive development and learning consist of four interrelated stages of development (Ginsburg & Opper, 1988;Hebe, 2017;Ilias & Esa, 2017;Simatwa, 2010) and postulated that abstract thinking differentiates older children from younger (Kirch, 2014), Vygotsky accentuated another approach to looking at children's cognitive development and learning whereby children's social experiences and an emphasis on language is the context in which learning occurs (Berk & Winsler, 1995;Hebe, 2017;Kirch, 2014). Four of Vygotsky's most valuable contributions are the concepts of the zone of proximal development (ZPD), scaffolding, private speech, and language in the context of learning (Bodrova & Leong, 2007;Hedges, 2012;Vaksalla & Hodshire, 2013).
Research in the field of neuroscience underscores the contributions of Piaget's position on the relationship between children and the learning environment and Vygotsky's position on social interaction (Liu & Chaing, 2014;Mayer, 2017;Rushton et al., 2010). Children's brains are physically altered as they explore their environment and experience learning (Blakemore & Frith, 2005;Frey & Fisher, 2010;Klingberg, 2013). A stimulating learning environment that creates an intrinsic motivation for exploration, discovery, and positive emotional experiences is an essential component for neural-development and functioning (Glaser & Barlow, 2014;Klingberg, 2013;Rushton et al., 2010). As children are afforded the opportunity to positively explore and experience a stimulating environment, neurons fire which increases the number and length of dendrites, thus altering the physical architecture of the brain (Frey & Fisher, 2010;Klingberg, 2013;Medina, 2008;Schachl, 2016). A critical component to a stimulating and engaging environment is adult-child social interaction where adults can provide temporary support to children based on their ZPD so they can fully engage in their learning experiences, develop skills, and acquire independence (Hohnen & Murphy, 2016;Malik & Wiseman, 2017).
A central component of DAP is the importance of young children learning through a childcentered play-based approach (Copple & Bredekamp, 2009; National Association for the Education of Young Children, 2020). Early childhood educators are faced with the challenge of incorporating a DAP child-centered play-based approach to learning while adhering to the pressure for inappropriate academic achievement (Pyle & Bigelow, 2015). Such challenges are triggered by ECE teacher's beliefs and perceptions about how children learn, professional development training, teacher qualification, and the program's curriculum (Abu-Jaber et al., 2010). Research conducted by Abu-Jaber et al. (2010) examined the beliefs of Jordanian kindergarten teachers about the use of DAP. Although results suggested that ECE teachers' beliefs were based on DAP with the exception of a reciprocal relationship with parents, results also indicated that ECE teachers also implemented developmentally inappropriate (DIP) classroom practices.

Literature review
Curricular demands stemming from NCLB and accountability have transformed the landscape of ECE programs in the U.S. resulting in a sense of cognitive dissonance between beliefs about DAP and curricular demands originating from the pressure for evidence of academic achievement as expected in NCLB (Rushton & Juola-Rushton, 2008). Consequently, researchers have studied the link between teachers' beliefs and DAP (Han & Neuharth-Pritchett, 2010;Hegde & Cassidy, 2009;H. K. Kim, 2011;McMullen, 1999). Pyle and Bigelow (2015) and Lynch (2015) examined the perceptions of kindergarten teachers about integrating a child-centered play-based approach to learning in kindergarten.
Classroom practices were influenced by curricular standards and academic pressure resulting in teacher-directed instruction. Results from Pyle and Bigelow's (2015) research study underscored the conflict of engaging in teacher-directed practices based on the one-size-fits-all approach and a playbased approach to learning. The pressure for evidence of academic achievement in young children often translates into early childhood educators abandoning DAP in favor of DIP (Lynch, 2015). Lynch (2015) underscored that constraints in DAP in the classroom was influenced by administrators who lacked knowledge about child growth and development and who maintained a belief that preschool is the first rung on the K-12 curriculum ladder. To maintain this belief, some early childhood centers shifted their focus to employing teachers with a bachelor's or master's degree in a K-12 related education field as a means of addressing student achievement and learning (Bueno et al., 2010); however, such a shift does not guarantee positive child outcomes (Han & Neuharth-Pritchett, 2010) and often dilutes a DAP approach to development and learning in these programs.
Although researchers have examined ECE teachers' beliefs and perceptions about DAP (Alford et al., 2016;Buettner et al., 2016;Lynch, 2015;Pyle & Bigelow, 2015), exploring the beliefs and perceptions of ECE teachers working in childcare centers with young children under 6 years of age is not sufficiently documented. Research pertaining to the beliefs and perceptions of toddler and preschool teachers can provide insight into what strategies they use and why they use those strategies. The inclusion of toddler and preschool teachers in this study can add to the existing body of knowledge. Our research study builds on the recommendations of Bassok et al. (2016) and Pyle and Bigelow (2015) who found that more research needs to be conducted to further explore the K-12 push-down curriculum and the use of DAP.

Early care and learning in New Jersey
The State of New Jersey Department of Children and Families Office of Licensing regulates classroom practices. Classroom practices highlight whole child development; cultural responsiveness; and children's needs, abilities, and interests. Regulations are further characterized by classroom activities that focus on children's age and developmental level; free choice; accessibility to materials; adequate time and space for classroom activities; and classroom activities that promote exploration, discovery, collaboration, social competence, and positive self-identity (State of New Jersey Department of Children and Families, 2017).
Early care and learning in New Jersey covers a range of services within diverse settings that are provided to young children under the age of 6. Childcare centers in the state of New Jersey that care for six or more children under 13 years of age for less than 24 hours a day must be licensed and regulated by the Department of Children and Families Office of Licensing (State of New Jersey Department of Children and Families, 2017). In 2017, there were approximately 3,965 licensed childcare centers with a capacity of 361,680 children in New Jersey (Advocates for Children of New Jersey, 2019). Licensed childcare centers serve a minimum of six children and must adhere to state licensing requirements. Some licensing regulations pertain to classroom activities and qualifications for toddler and preschool teachers.

Classroom activities
Children are active learners and seek to explore the nature of cause and effect; therefore, they should be active participants in their learning experiences (Dewey, 1990;Piaget, 1952;Ulrich, 2016). Classroom environments require space and materials where children can freely move and actively engage in playful learning activities based on their interests (Nilsson et al., 2017), overcome challenges, and gain learning experiences based on process as opposed to the end product (Berk & Winsler, 1995;Copple & Bredekamp, 2009;Hart et al., 1997). Classroom curriculum should be individualized, culturally responsive, centered on the interests of children and their developmental level, and encourage social interaction and peer learning (Bodrova & Leong, 2007;Bredekamp, 2010;Piaget & Inhelder, 1969). An individualized approach provides the opportunity for critical thinking, the expression of ideas through creativity and imagination, development of skills through scaffolding based on a child's ZPD, and the engagement in multiple experiences that create neurological networks and develop emotional regulation (Hohnen & Murphy, 2016;Rushton et al., 2010).

Qualification requirements
As a result of the current trend of requiring that early childhood educators hold a bachelor's or master's degree (Bueno et al., 2010), the State of New Jersey Department of Children and Families Office of Licensing shifted qualifications for ECE teachers working in a childcare center to include that ECE teachers can hold a master's or bachelor's degree in fields not related to early childhood education. Before this change, the state requirement for ECE teachers was a high school diploma and a child development associate (CDA) credential. Allowing a bachelor's or master's degree in any field other than early childhood education can result in toddler and preschool teachers who lack knowledge about child growth and development and DAP and who use inappropriate approaches to caring for and educating young children (Bassok et al., 2016;Buettner et al., 2016;Zambo, 2008).

Purpose of the study
This study aimed to examine the extent to which classroom practices were developmentally appropriate in state licensed toddler and preschool classrooms in New Jersey. The researchers were interested in examining the extent to which toddler and preschool teachers' classroom practices reflect current views of best practices in the care and education of young children. The following questions guided the research study: • What do toddler and preschool teachers believe their roles are within toddler and preschool classrooms?
• What do toddler and preschool teachers know and perceive about the application of developmentally appropriate practice in toddler and preschool classrooms?
• What strategies do toddler and preschool teachers use to implement developmentally appropriate practice in their classrooms?

Significance of the study
This study is significant because we sought to explore and explain whether toddler and preschool teachers implemented the state's guidelines for DAP. Results of the study can provide useful data to help in bridging the gap between early childhood theories and research and classroom practices. This can help in planning developmentally appropriate activities for young children. The study can aid educational leaders and stakeholders in New Jersey and beyond understand the negative impact that educational changes in grades K-12 have had on the childcare community. Results can be useful in providing more oversight to childcare centers due to fact that toddler and preschool teachers can hold a bachelor's or master's degree in fields unrelated to early childhood education.

Methodology and design
A recruitment letter was emailed to 15 childcare centers in northern New Jersey from a public listing of licensed childcare centers. Three centers agreed to participate in the study. The researchers had no prior relationships or knowledge about the three childcare centers that agreed to participate. A total of 16 teachers agreed to participate from the three childcare centers. Participants were not compensated.
The researchers used a qualitative case study design, which included semi-structured one-onone interviews, a focus group, and collection of documentation (lesson plans, pictures of participants' classrooms, and children's work samples). A qualitative case study provided the opportunity to obtain rich in-depth data for the purpose of exploring and explaining to what extent classroom practices were developmentally appropriate in toddler and preschool classrooms. Semi-structured interviews provided the opportunity for teachers to respond to open-ended questions for the purpose of gathering data on teachers' beliefs and perceptions (Cohen et al., 2007;Merriam, 2009).

Informed consent
ECE teachers were informed about the purpose of the study, study details, the benefits of the study, that participation was voluntary, that there is no intended harm, and that they can withdraw at any time without penalty (Bogdam & Bikken, 2007;Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). Teachers were informed about the time commitment required to complete the one-on-one interviews and focus group, that all information would be kept confidential, and that they were required to read and sign the informed consent as ethically required (Greener, 2011;Thomas, 2015). Teachers were required to submit informed consent forms prior to their participation and data collection. Prior to data collection, this research received IRB approval from the University of Phoenix. Teachers who participated chose whether they wanted to participate in one-on-one interviews or the focus group.
Two teachers from childcare center A and five teachers from childcare center B chose to participate in the one-on-one interview for a total of seven participants. The nine teachers from childcare center C all chose to participate in the focus group. No classroom observations were conducted. During the one-on-one interviews and focus group interview, participants provided photographs of their classrooms, copies of lesson plans, and copies of children's work samples with no identifying markers. Toddler and preschool teachers who were recruited met the State of New Jersey Department of Children and Families Office of Licensing qualifications for working in a childcare center.

Participants
Toddler and preschool teachers for the study came from three licensed childcare centers located in culturally diverse cities in the state of New Jersey. The group of participants included three supervising head teachers, four toddler teachers, four teachers of three-year-olds, and five teachers of four-year-olds for a total of 16 teachers from three different childcare centers. Each teacher who participated worked with young children between the ages of 2 and 5 years old. There were two participants from Center A, five from Center B, and nine from Center C.

Data collection
The purpose of this study was to examine toddler and preschool teachers' perceptions about the use of DAP within their classrooms. Data were gathered through in-depth semi-structured one-onone interviews; a focus group; and collection of lesson plans, children's work samples, and photographs of toddler and preschool classrooms. Semi-structured one-on-one interviews with toddler and preschool teachers were approximately 60 minutes in length, and the focus group was approximately 75 minutes in length. The same questions were used with both groups. A total of 16 teachers from three childcare centers participated in the study: the seven who participated in the one-on-one interviews were from Centers A and B and the nine who participated in the focus group were from Center C.

Data analysis
The constant comparative method was used to compare classroom photographs against the Early Childhood Environmental Rating Scale (ECERS-3; Harms et al., 2015) and the Infant/Toddler Environmental Rating Scale (ITERS-R; Harms et al., 2006) to answer the research questions and examine strategies that toddler and preschool teachers used in their classrooms. The constant comparative method is a process of gathering and sorting data into categories to determine similarities and differences (Creswell, 2012;Lodico et al., 2010). Children's work samples, lesson plans, and classroom photographs were gathered, sorted, and categorized in order to determine similarities and differences. Photographs of the classroom learning environments and children's work samples were constantly compared against the guidelines in the two subscales, room arrangement and art, in the Early Childhood Environmental Rating Scale (ECERS-3; Harms et al., 2015) and the Infant/Toddler Environmental Rating Scale (ITERS-R; Harms et al., 2006). Lesson plans were compared against two of five guidelines for DAP as described in National Association for the Education of Young Children's (2009) position statement: (a) teaching to enhance development and learning and (b) planning curriculum to achieve important goals (Copple & Bredekamp, 2009).
To further answer the questions, the following were investigated: how toddler and preschool teachers perceive their roles in the classroom, how toddler and preschool teachers integrate the theoretical ideology of early childhood pioneers and classroom practice, what toddler and preschool teachers' beliefs and perceptions are about the use of DAP, and why toddler and preschool teachers do what they do. Open and axial coding was used in order to descriptively analyze and uncover patterns of regularities in comments. Columns of quotes were assigned categories and those categories were further assigned supporting themes that interpreted and explained toddler and preschool teachers' beliefs and perceptions about the use of DAP and the extent to which teaching strategies were developmentally appropriate within toddler and preschool classrooms. Table 1 shows a summary of codes, categories, and themes based on the research questions.

Results
The study aimed to examine the extent to which classroom practices were developmentally appropriate in state licensed childcare centers, specifically toddler and preschool classrooms in New Jersey. Data analysis led to three themes: the schooling approach, why toddler and preschool teachers do what they do, and qualifications, knowledge, and training. Toddler and preschool teachers shared their beliefs and perceptions about their role within the classroom and their use of DAP in their classrooms. Findings revealed that classroom practices were based on the childcare program's curriculum. Two of the three childcare centers used a traditional K-12 pushdown approach to classroom practices while the other center used a more DAP curriculum. Findings also revealed that of the 16 teachers, seven had no knowledge about the theoretical foundations of DAP or about early childhood pioneers such as Jean Piaget and Lev Vygotsky. Responses from all participants in the study perceived their childcare centers as school highlighting the connection between early care and learning and the K-12 school system (Atchion etal., 2014) rather than a childcare center that is focused on the care and development of the young child (State of New Jersey Department of Children and Families, 2017).

The schooling approach
The intent of Research Question 1 was to obtain an in-depth understanding of how toddler and preschool teachers perceive their roles in the classroom. Although all 16 teachers perceived their early childhood program as school, classroom practices varied. Teachers were asked to explain what they believed their roles were within the classroom. Of the 16 teachers, seven believed that their role in the classroom was to prepare young children for kindergarten using a K-12 pushdown curriculum. Susan, a preschool teacher of 4-year olds, illustrated this view of her role in the classroom. She explicitly communicated the academic nature of her classroom practices by stating: So, my role is to help them progress and help them learn and get ready for kindergarten 'cause that's where they're going to be. So I have to make sure that they're ready so that way they won't be behind once they get to another teacher.
Claire, a toddler teacher of 2-year olds, explained her role in the classroom. She explained how classroom practices are based on the program's curriculum by stating: I think that for the 2-year olds, they should have a bit more free play but our program is very academic. Our Pre-K curriculum is actually a kindergarten curriculum so my role is to prepare them for kindergarten.
These seven teachers, who viewed their role as preparing young children for school, communicated how program expectations are based on what children should know and be able to do and the need for the teachers to follow a scripted curriculum. When asked about her understanding about DAP, Susan explained her perceptions by stating: When you say developmentally appropriate, I think of a curriculum, lesson plans, and also worksheets from schoolwork that they can handle for their age group. We place them in groups according to who we think they'll pay attention more with according to who is on their academic level. They described DAP as a curriculum and lesson plans that are based on rote learning, memorization, and a one-size-fits-all approach. They also described the importance of teaching first and second grade subject-matter in their classrooms. Dee, a preschool teacher of 4-year olds, perceived DAP from an academic platform. She explicitly communicated the academic nature of her classroom practices as preparing preschool children for kindergarten by stating: I teach them things that I know are taught in the upper grades. Like first and second grades. We talked about vowels the other day. The 4-year olds, why not? Why not? You know whether you digest it or not; that's up to the individual. So that individual, who was able to, got a reward. That individual, who wasn't able at least somewhere in her or his brain, maybe it's locked in. So, I don't mind educating a little bit beyond the so called developmentally ready.
Joanne, a preschool teacher of 4-year olds, explained her perception of DAP by stating: We are teaching the students at an age level that is appropriate for them where they can learn and grow.
In contrast, nine of the 16 teachers did not follow a scripted curriculum and did not support a teacher-directed one-size-fits-all approach to classroom practices. Those nine teachers communicated that they perceived their roles within toddler and preschool classrooms from the perspective of individual child observations and facilitation in order to determine children's interests and children's developmental levels. Loleita, a preschool teacher of 4-year olds, perceived her role as an observer and facilitator. She explained the nature of her classroom practices by stating: When I think of what I do on a daily basis is that I'm an observer. So, I'm constantly watching the children at work to see how they're interacting socially and emotionally, to see what they're interested in, and where we might want to facilitate more, but constantly listening, constantly watching. I feel that observing is a good word to describe what I'm doing most of the day.
Sonia, a toddler teacher of 2-year olds, perceived her role in the classroom by stating: You're always engaging in guided play. At times, you're following them; other times, you're leading them. You are inspiring them. But most of all, you are facilitating.
Laura, a preschool teacher of 4-year olds, echoed Sonia's view and explained her role by stating: We also listen to what the children have to say. We would like to see, maybe things going in a certain direction, but then we see the children going in another direction, and learning to switch gears and following the directions that they are taking, and being that link between the classroom environment and the children. For our age group the 4 and 5, I want to make sure most importantly that they are socially and emotionally ready to transition to kindergarten.
When asked to further explain her perception of kindergarten preparation, Laura stated: I don't think there is a place for it yet. I think that they're too young. It shouldn't be the main focus of the classroom. If you haven't given them that good cognitive and social foundation, that tends to go by the wayside and tends to be overlooked. Then you get this chasm that just gets wider and harder to bridge. Really, ideally you want them to be fairly balanced and even planed.
When asked about her understanding of DAP, Sonia explained her perception by stating: If you understand child development and you know the markers of where kids usually are at different ages, then you can set up your room so that the children can be successful and not expecting them to do things that's beyond their realm.
These nine teachers described using DAP as being aware of children's developmental levels in order to provide young children with the opportunity to be successful and creative and to see themselves in their creations.

Why toddler and preschool teachers do what they do
Research Question 2 focused on what toddler and preschool teachers know and perceive about the application of DAP in toddler and preschool classrooms. Teachers were asked to describe how their classroom practices related to developmentally appropriate practice. All 16 teachers explained that the center's curriculum guided classroom activities. Of the 16 teachers, seven described a curriculum that was focused on rote learning and teacher-imposed instructions based on a onesize-fits-all approach to teaching young children. Susan perceived classroom practices relative to DAP from an academically-based curriculum that consisted of worksheets. Susan stated: We do worksheets and rhyming. We do counting, 1 to 10. We just got up to 20; now we're counting by 10s. So, like last week we were counting in 20s, and we started to introduce counting by 10s. So, the kids know this week they already have 10s and now we're learning place value, vowels, and sight words where they get tested on Fridays.
Mary, a preschool teacher of 3-year olds explained the role of the school's curriculum in relation to DAP based on classroom periods. She stated: So, there's really like two academic periods. So out of those times, we do a journal. So that's more or less the curriculum. The director likes a little bit of social science, a little bit of math, a little bit of language arts.
She explained that she used workbooks and worksheets to teach academic content because they believed that young children should be able to sit, pay attention, and begin writing. Gym, a preschool teacher of 3-year olds, also perceived classroom practices relative to DAP from an academically-based curriculum that consisted of rote learning and memorization. She stated: Some of the kids, they are ready. We do, it's a lot of repetition in the program.
When asked to further explain what she meant by repetition in the program, Gym stated: Repetition meaning we're always going over academic content like letters, writing, using worksheets, constantly going over them. I know that this is pretty much rote learning.
Those seven teachers described having specific instructional blocks in their daily schedule when they teach young children specific content that is based on the program's curriculum, assessments, and expectations.
Conversely, nine teachers explained that they perceived the child as the curriculum and described children learning through play as the basis for the application of DAP. When asked to describe how classroom practices relate to DAP, Olive viewed the classroom environment as an important component to DAP. She stated that: I think that the classroom itself is the third teacher. So when you have your room and your materials set up, the kids have the freedom to explore and manifest an idea in a third dimension such as space. There's a lot of freedom in doing that.
These teachers described a classroom environment that was center-based and provided for children's active learning based on each child's interest and developmental level. Marion, a preschool teacher of 3-year olds perceived curriculum and DAP from a child-centered perspective. She stated: I would also say that if something is developmentally appropriate it allows them to be successful, but also allows them to be creative. I think a lot of what we're doing is heading up that experience. Facilitating the experience so that each child is viewed as a very well- developed person with a lot of interesting ideas. So, every activity allows them to bring a little bit of themselves and a little bit of their own creativity.
Those teachers who viewed DAP from a child-centered approach to development and learning also explained that the program's expectations focused on the child-centered approach to learning in order to scaffold math, literacy, social, and emotional skills. Results showed that these nine teachers perceived a relationship between children's developmental levels, interests, and abilities as the basis for the application of DAP.

Qualifications, knowledge, and training
The intent of Research Question 3 was to determine what strategies toddlers and preschool teachers use to integrate early childhood theory and classroom practice, where toddler and preschool teachers get their information about DAP, and how classroom practices relate to theories and research that are the basis of DAP. Table 2 shows teacher qualifications. More teachers in the study had qualifications in fields unrelated to ECE. Of the 16 teachers, only three held a degree or credential in ECE: one held a bachelor's degree in ECE, one held a master's degree in ECE, and one held a child CDA credential. Of the remaining 13 teachers, six held a bachelor's degree in a field unrelated to education, while seven held either a bachelor's degree or a master's degree in an education-related field. The four teachers who held a master's degree all of which were education-related, all had a bachelor's degree in a field unrelated to education.
Interestingly, the teachers from Centers A and B had five of seven teachers with a degree unrelated to ECE. Center C had two of nine with a degree unrelated to ECE.
Of the 16 teachers, seven explained that they had no knowledge about Jean Piaget, Lev Vygotsky, and other foundational aspects of DAP. When asked where teachers get their information about DAP, these seven teachers explained that they obtain information about DAP from the director, Internet, Pinterest, or are self-taught. In comparison, nine teachers who understood and apply DAP, explained that they were knowledgeable about Jean Piaget, Lev Vygotsky, and other foundational aspects of DAP. When asked where they get their information about DAP, they explained that their classroom practices were directly influenced by training from Bank Street College of Education, a college in New York that focuses on DAP and the Reggio Emilia inspired approach. The Reggio Emilia inspired approach to the education and care of young children draws on the theoretical ideology of early childhood theorists such as John Dewey and Lev Vygotsky, where the child is perceived as an active researcher, capable of contributing to their learning as they solve problems and engage in creative expression (Hewett, 2001;Wood et al., 2015). Within Reggio Emilia inspired programs, the classroom is perceived as the third teacher and toddler and preschool teachers function as facilitators who scaffold children's developmental learning (Wood et al., 2015). The primary focus of the Reggio Emilia approach is to center learning and development on each child, not the teacher (Wood et al., 2015).

Classroom arrangement
To further understand the strategies that toddler and preschool teachers used in their classrooms and to determine the extent classroom practices were developmentally appropriate, we examined documentation of children's activities, classroom environments, and lesson plans. Based on an analysis of these documents using the ECERS-3 and ITERS-R quality indicators of room arrangement for play and learning, the results revealed that interest areas of the seven teachers who did not understand or apply DAP were not clearly defined; space was not arranged to create clear, non-obstructed pathways; and quiet and noisy play areas were not separated from one another.

Figure 3. Worksheet activity.
An indicator of teacher-imposed practices in these classrooms was that tables and chairs were arranged in rows with children facing a board. In one of these childcare centers, interest areas were located in other classrooms, requiring the children to travel. In these centers, children did not choose their interest area. Instead, teachers assigned interest areas to children (Figure 1).
Conversely, based on the ECERS-3 and ITERS-R quality indicators of room arrangement for play and learning, results revealed that interest areas for nine teachers who understood and applied DAP were clearly defined. Classroom arrangement indicated that quiet and noisy areas were all separated from one another by physical space. All play areas requiring special provisions were conveniently equipped, and all learning centers requiring more space had sufficient space to accommodate the type of play required and the number of children who wanted to participate. All interest areas were clearly defined and located within the classroom (Figure 2).
In these classrooms, teachers explained that children chose their interest areas and children were given the opportunity to be creative.

Lesson planning and children's work samples
Teachers in this study explained that the practice of lesson planning informed class practices and children's activities based on the program's curriculum and expectations. Results revealed that lesson plans for seven teachers who did not understand or apply DAP consisted of rote learning worksheets based on a scripted curriculum. Figure 3 is an example of seatwork and K-12-pushdown curriculum meant to gain abstract knowledge. In this letter of the week worksheet, children were expected to identify and recognize all objects that begin with the "e" sound. In this worksheet, the teacher wrote that the child was able to recognize all "e" sounds. Figure 4 is another example of seatwork and K-12-pushdown curriculum meant to gain abstract knowledge where children are expected to correctly paste corresponding chips. In this worksheet, the teacher placed a check mark to indicate whether the child correctly completed each item. Figure 5 is another example of seatwork and K-12 pushdown curriculum meant to gain abstract knowledge where children are expected to write, identify, count, and paste numbers in the correct order.
Based on the quality indicators of teaching to enhance development and learning and planning curriculum to achieve important goals described in the DAP document (Copple & Bredekamp, 2009), these lesson plans and activities did not meet these indicators. Lesson plans in the K-12 pushdown classrooms consisted of activities for rote learning, use of worksheets, and teacherdirected instructions that did not underscore learning through play. Some lesson plan objectives for classroom activities included: students will name tens and ones in numbers up to 20; students will estimate quantities 1-100 with increasing accuracy; and students will read and write whole numbers 0 to 100. Some classroom activities included reviewing numbers, identifying and writing letters, writing in a journal, and participating in weekly spelling tests from a vocabulary list. Based on the ECERS-3 (Harms et al., 2015) and ITERS-R (Harms et al., 2006) quality indicators for art, children's work samples showed no individual expression in these classrooms. Children's work samples consisted of worksheets and cookie cutter artwork where children's artwork and work samples all looked the same. Seven teachers who did not understand or apply DAP explained that they used worksheets that consisted of filling in the blank to complete a sentence.
In comparison, artifacts collected from nine teachers (see, Figure 6) who understood and applied DAP were aligned with two of the quality indicators from the DAP document as noted by Copple and Bredekamp (2009): (a) teaching to enhance development and learning and (b) planning curriculum to achieve developmentally appropriate goals. Figure 6 shows activities that are examples of developmentally appropriate activities based on the child-centered approach to learning. In these activities, children were active participants in their learning experiences and activities were not based on the one-size-fits-all approach to learning.
Those nine teachers explained that they do not write lesson plans, but perceived the child as the curriculum. They used planning notes and individual child observations to suggest classroom activities that would interest the children. When compared to the ECERS-3 and ITERS-R quality indicators of art, children's work samples from these teachers' classrooms revealed individualized self-expression and creativity with various art materials and art mediums.
Data provided important insight into how toddler and preschool teachers perceive their roles, what strategies they use, and why toddler and preschool teachers do what they do with regard to DAP. Although there are different beliefs and perceptions about DAP, the fundamental premise of DAP is rooted in the child-centered approach to learning and in constructivism where children have the freedom to actively engage in their own learning experiences. A child-centered approach recognizes that children grow and develop at their own pace. The implementation of such an approach underscores the importance of providing an environment where ECE teachers function as facilitators, guiding children's learning through play as they engage in exploration and discovery. Some teachers, who have no knowledge about the importance of aligning early childhood theory and classroom practice, tend to implement a passive approach to learning that centers on teacher-imposed instruction, rote learning, and memorization. This approach hinders the childcentered approach to learning and children's autonomy.

Discussion
Results from this study contribute to previous research related to teachers' beliefs about the use of DAP because toddler and preschool teachers' beliefs and perceptions about the use of DAP were specifically explored and explained. The researchers had no prior knowledge of the three childcare centers. After reviewing the data, it was evident that teachers at Centers A and B were more likely to use practices that were not developmentally appropriate, while teachers at Center C were more likely to use developmentally appropriate practices. A possible explanation for the differing approaches in classroom practices may be due to lack of awareness, knowledge, and training on early childhood theory and child growth and development.
Results of this study indicate that toddler and preschool teachers consider children's learning as important; however, results show variation in approaches to caring and teaching based on teachers' beliefs and perceptions and the program's curriculum. Differing approaches were informed by diverse perceptions of DAP and ways in which toddler and preschool teachers approach young children's learning. Classroom practices that were primarily teacher-imposed seatwork demonstrated how changes in early childhood education have influenced some teachers' beliefs and perceptions about how young children should learn, resulting in using inappropriate instructional methods with young children, pushing young children too quickly through developmental stages, and causing emotional stress for toddler and preschool children (Cherry et al., 1989;Donaldson, 2019).
Beliefs and perceptions of ECE teachers are important in their decision-making in regards to meeting the developmental needs of young children. The research findings revealed that seven of the 16 teachers believed that a K-12 pushdown curriculum approach should begin in childcare centers. This study aligns with the studies conducted by Alford et al. (2016) and Pyle and Bigelow (2015). These studies emphasized that the schooling approach to classroom practices has negated the constructivist foundation of DAP, which is learning through play where early childhood educators function as facilitators instead of traditional teachers. Results suggest that some toddler and preschool teachers in the study believed that it was important to teach traditional K-12 academics with the misguided belief that this would prepare toddler and preschool children for success in kindergarten. Changes in the field of early childhood education can be a possible explanation for aligning childcare practices with a K-12 pushdown curriculum approach; however, the misguided view of implementing traditional K-12 academics in childcare not only causes emotional stress, but is at the expense of the constructivist child-centered approach to learning.
One of the criteria of DAP is providing the opportunity for young children to actively engage in exploration, investigation, and discovery-based learning. Results show that classroom practices by seven participants were influenced by the program's K-12 pushdown curriculum, where teachers required young children to be passive rather than active learners. A passive academic-focused approach is contradictory to the constructivist approach and to the DAP position that children benefit more from a child-centered curriculum where children can actively participate in their learning experiences and that all developmental domains are incorporated equally in classroom practices. This passive academic-focused approach contradicts a body of evidence that supports the belief that young children (2-7 years old) learn best through a play-based, hands-on interaction with the social and physical environment, a whole child approach to learning, and a deep understanding of the impact of the emotional component of development and learning (Berk & Winsler, 1995;Copple & Bredekamp, 2009;Hart et al., 1997;Vygotsky, 1978;De Young et al., 2011). It also goes against the state's own professed standards. Toddlers and preschoolers need ECE teachers who are aware of and understand that they are helping young children to develop language skills, emotional regulation, and physical control; these young children are not yet able to sit still or focus on a task for any extended period of time (Copple & Bredekamp, 2009;New Jersey Council for Young Children, 2013;Washington, 2013).
The study results show that teachers who implemented a DIP curriculum perceived a relationship between children's chronological age and what they should know and be able to do, along with individual differences and development. This suggests that to be effective in aligning practices with whole child development, toddler and preschool teachers need to be knowledgeable about child growth and development, each child's individual differences, and the child-centered constructivist approach of DAP (Zambo, 2008). The constructivist approach to learning underscores the importance of ECE teachers guiding children's thinking by functioning as facilitators who do not subscribe to the traditional one-size-fits all approach to teaching. The constructivist approach uses a curricular approach of intentional teaching that is based on the knowledge of children's individual needs and interests to structure relevant activities and experiences for children (Graue et al., 2014).

Limitations
This study was part of a larger explanatory dissertation project that examined toddler and preschool teachers' perceptions about the use of DAP within their classrooms. One limitation of this study was that a small sample size of 16 teachers from three licensed childcare centers in northern New Jersey were interviewed. Another limitation was the inability to observe toddler and preschool teachers in their classrooms, which could have provided in-depth information regarding classroom practices. In spite of this potential limiting factor, it did not skew the data collection, but presented an opportunity for toddler and preschool teachers to describe their classroom practices based on their beliefs and perceptions.

Recommendations for future research
Our study did not describe the beliefs and perceptions of childcare directors, which highlights the need for future research to be conducted on how curricula are chosen and why some early childhood programs select developmentally inappropriate curricula. Interview questions asked toddler and preschool teachers to describe where they get information about DAP. However, the interview questions did not ask toddler and preschool teachers if they believed that professional development training was effective or sufficient for supporting classroom practices that are developmentally appropriate. Research is needed to examine the effectiveness of professional development training in ECE programs.

Conclusion
Although the 1987 guidelines for DAP were published as a direct reaction to the increasing tendency for teacher-imposed academic instruction in ECE programs, as we progress through the 21st century, classroom practices in two of the three childcare centers continues to mirror the increasing tendency for teacher-imposed academic instructions. Teachers from one center did understand and apply DAP while teachers from two centers did not understand or apply DAP. Qualifications and training appear to be link to knowledge about child growth and development and the use of DIP classroom practices (Buettner et al., 2016;Han & Neuharth-Pritchett, 2010;Zambo, 2008). Training pertaining to the application of DAP in the classroom can be beneficial to ensuring that classroom environments, materials, activities, and practices are developmentally appropriate and geared towards supporting the whole child development of every young child. It also appears that limited oversight from the Department of Children and Families Office of Licensing results in programs adopting an inappropriate K-12 approach to curriculum and instruction.
To some extent, the National Association for the Education of Young Children (2020) position statement on DAP can be seen as reinforcing a play-based approach to learning. However, the inclusion of learning standards and competencies withing the position statement can reinforce teacher-imposed practices thereby, nullifying Copple and Bredekamp (2009) emphasis on shifting from a K-12 pushdown curriculum, particularly in childcare centers to a child-centered approach based on research that supports whole child development. Furthermore, considering that quality education is one of the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals (UNSDG-4), which focuses on "ensuring inclusive and equitable quality education and promoting lifelong learning opportunities for all" (United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs, 2016), it is important that that ECE teachers align early childhood theory and child growth and development with classroom practices as a means of meeting the diverse needs of all children, especially children with special needs. Although the childcare licensing regulations underscore the importance of active learning experiences and programs implementing a curriculum that should be individualized, culturally responsive, centered on the interests and capabilities of children based on their developmental level, and encouraging social interaction, study results show that in some centers, classroom activities provided to young children less than 6 years of age were primarily centered on teacher-imposed academic instruction with limited emphasis on whole child development and the constructivist child-centered approach to learning. This approach is contrary to the UNSDG-4 concept of inclusive and equitable quality education, in that it does not address meeting the diverse needs of all children, particularly children with special needs.
In closing, results suggest that toddler and preschool teachers need to be aware of early childhood theory and the developmental needs of young children. The use of DIP in some of the centers studied also suggests the need for a monitoring and evaluation system that can ensure ongoing professional development training in child growth and development relative to aligning early childhood theory to classroom practices. As early childhood education continues to experience educational changes, sometimes the beliefs and perceptions of ECE teachers are not ideal or appropriate for young children. Therefore, it is important for educational leaders of ECE programs in New Jersey and beyond to deeply understand the negative results of a curricular and instructional approach that forces young children too quickly through developmental stages. This understanding may lead to eliminating qualifications in a non-ECE field. This is a significant finding in the study. Since the state has developed and disseminated specific regulations regarding curriculum and instruction for the childcare programs they regulate, it is incumbent that they implement a program evaluation and monitoring system to make sure programs are knowledgeable about child growth and development and support classroom activities that are developmentally appropriate, child-centered, and supportive of whole child development.