Does technical drawing increase students’ mental rotation ability?

Abstract In this article, we examined whether technical drawing increased the mental rotation ability in 13- to 15-year-old students (N = 201). Students were pretested with the Mental Rotations Test. Later, a group of students was exposed to technical drawing for 10 weeks, which involved specific training with spatial activities and tasks, to increase mental rotation ability. The other group followed their normal classes. Then both groups were posttested and scores showed that the technical drawing students significantly outperformed the control group with a moderate effect size. Additional analyses revealed that the technical drawing students’ scores increased from pretest to posttest, with a similar performance in the control group. But this research suggested technical drawing increased students’ mental rotation ability with greater effectiveness than other subject areas that may also have broad spatial activities and tasks. Additionally, those other subjects employ classical and often static methods which may or may not provide spatial training that is either effective or efficient compared to technical drawing.

Does technical drawing increase students' mental rotation ability? Babalola Ogunkola 1 * and Carlos Knight 1 Abstract: In this article, we examined whether technical drawing increased the mental rotation ability in 13-to 15-year-old students (N = 201). Students were pretested with the Mental Rotations Test. Later, a group of students was exposed to technical drawing for 10 weeks, which involved specific training with spatial activities and tasks, to increase mental rotation ability. The other group followed their normal classes. Then both groups were posttested and scores showed that the technical drawing students significantly outperformed the control group with a moderate effect size. Additional analyses revealed that the technical drawing students' scores increased from pretest to posttest, with a similar performance in the control group. But this research suggested technical drawing increased students' mental rotation ability with greater effectiveness than other subject areas that may also have broad spatial activities and tasks. Additionally, those other subjects employ classical and often static methods which may or may not provide spatial training that is either effective or efficient compared to technical drawing.

Subjects: Mathematics & Statistics; Social Sciences; Development Studies; Education; Humanities
Keywords: technical drawing; mental rotation ability; spatial ability; spatial training; secondary school ABOUT THE AUTHORS Babalola Ogunkola is a senior lecturer in Science Education and Evaluation, and the Director of School of Education in the Faculty of Humanities and Education at the University of the West Indies, Bridgetown, Barbados. He is a managing editor of the Caribbean Educational Research Journal. He has published several articles in local and international journals in the areas of evaluation of students' achievement, teaching effectiveness, and early science learning. He is also a member of professional associations such as American Educational Research Association.
Carlos Knight is a tutor in Technical and Vocational Education at the Barbados Community College, Bridgetown, Barbados. He earned his master's degree from the University of the West Indies and is now a research candidate for the PhD in education with a focus in testing and measurement. His research interests include technical and vocational education, vocational competencies and qualifications, spatial ability, and teacher training.

PUBLIC INTEREST STATEMENT
Spatial ability is important in all aspects of one's occupational, personal, and academic life. Considering what can be implied from above it would be appropriate to understand how spatial ability may be developed and improved, as it affects overall existence. To continue, the ability to mentally rotate two-and three-dimensional objects naturally occurs daily. Within technical and vocational classrooms, there is a focus on developing and increasing such components of spatial ability. Hence, technical drawing instruction can be seen as a viable way to promote students' spatial development via its specific training activities, strategies, and instruments. The aim of this study is to investigate the effect of technical drawing instruction on students' mental rotation ability. This research could advance a case for educational stakeholders to be cognizant of the educational possibilities regarding technical drawing to increase spatial cognition. Furthermore, it could improve decisions on course-and program-related policies.

Spatial ability's importance to engineering drawing/technical drawing
Although technical drawing and engineering drawing have differences in names, Kayhan (2005) makes the link between the two, where both include visual skills, communication that is graphical, and have standard conventions and drawing rules.
Much research advanced the importance and connection between spatial abilities, technical or engineering drawing, and other vocational subjects. Students of technical and vocational programs require spatial ability to be successful (Alias et al., 2002;Bartholomew, 2014;Lienhard, 2000;Marunic & Glazar, 2012;Medina et al., 1998;Serdar & Harm de Vries, 2015). Moreover, positive effects were observed in students' learning when exposed to engineering drawing and its activities as measured by the Mental Rotations Test (MRT) (Sorby et al., 2013;Vandenberg & Kuse, 1978).
To conclude, the literature shows the importance and need of spatial ability, and training for its improvement in relation to several vocational areas. In fact, success in academic and daily life is impacted by spatial ability, where learning can be transferred to other contexts.

Can training activities develop spatial ability?
Highlighted in the literature are attempts to improve spatial ability development. However, varying opinions on interventions and degrees of success are present in the literature concerning spatial ability and training techniques. However, Clements (1998) noted that developing spatial ability in schools is not significantly successful because the common school curriculum does not cater to this ability. Uttal et al.'s (2013) meta-analysis of 206 research studies examined the malleability of spatial skills in relation to training studies. The results indicated an overall moderate effect size for training studies.
The literature linked spatial training for the improvement of spatial ability (Baldwin, 1985;Chowdhury, 2017;Samsudin et al., 2011) with suggestions that correlations occur between spatial training, improved knowledge and understanding, and improved or efficient practical skills. Kayhan (2005) examined spatial ability (spatial visualization and spatial orientation) and whether a technical drawing course affected its development. Results indicated that the technical drawing course caused a significant increase from pretest and posttest, with a significant positive relationship to spatial ability.
Authors (Baartmans & Sorby, 1996;Ben-Chaim et al., 1988;Katsioloudis et al., 2014;Sorby & Veurink, 2010) recognized the value of preparatory lessons of graphic courses and vocational subjects to aid improving new engineering students' spatial ability. Spatial visualization ability was a significant predictor and needed for technical problem-solving success and teachers needed to instruct with activities which teach basic visualization and problem-solving skills (Alias et al., 2002;Koch & Sanders, 2011;Olkun, 2003;Verner & Merksamer, 2015). Specifically, Stransky et al. (2010) and Ferrini-Mundy (1987) suggested that spatial training can improve mental rotation where persons receiving the training outperformed those not exposed. Further, those students who had prior experiences with mental rotation significantly improved their performance. Also, it is suggested that development of spatial ability is achievable if suitable training resources are present (Basham & Kotrlik, 2008;Cohen et al., 2003;Potter & van der Merwe, 2001).
In summary, technical drawing involves several of the concepts utilized within studies from the literature. Although technical drawing is not specifically named in the literature, there is a suggestion that training activities may lead to the development of spatial ability, but it is not always transparent. The spatial ability and technical/engineering drawing training association within the literature has been established. However, activities, instruments, and strategies all have impacted the degree of how spatial ability could be developed or increased. Finally, one may conclude that spatial training in the form of technical drawing would increase students' spatial ability.

Impact of other factors affecting spatial ability development
In concurrence with spatial development, several researchers have investigated the effects of spatial training in regard to age, mode of representation, and computer technologies on the development of spatial ability. For instance, Thurstone (1948) claimed that after age of 14 spatial ability growth would become stationary, although some growth occurs through the twenties. Safhalter et al. (2016) observed the effects of age and sex (11 to 15 years) on 196 non-randomly selected secondary school students' spatial reasoning development. It was concluded that students' spatial reasoning increased because of the spatial training, but age and sex had no effect. Subran (2008) examined technical and vocational secondary school students' performance on spatial tasks with regard to the impact of three modes of representation. Results point to the mode significantly influenced the learning environment and not necessarily the specific type of spatial training.
Much research has focused on computer technologies and software to enhance spatial abilities through classroom activities. Improvement in engineering students' spatial ability skills could be had with Computer Aided Drawing and Design (CADD) software (Sorby & Baartmans, 2000). However, studies offered no significant difference in students' scores when CADD and other computer technologies were used (Godfrey, 1999;Rafi et al., 2006;Shavalier, 2004). However, there was significant interaction between the students' spatial experience level and the method of instructions used which suggested effectiveness of the training method could be dependent on their level of spatial experience.
Further research (Do & Lee, 2009) endeavored that spatial ability can be enhanced by video games while sex differences in mental rotation performance can be reduced (Cherney et al., 2014) but Cohen and Hegarty (2007) advocated controlling computer animations of three-dimensional objects, but with only some persons and Wright et al. (2008) have shown persistent training and practice with manipulatives could result in significant positive spatial performance improvement. Wong et al. (2014) and Jacobson et al. (2010) investigated children with a deficiency in a specific chromosome to determine the effect on their processing of spatiotemporal information. When this specific chromosome was absent, processing of spatiotemporal information was diminished and weakness occurred in spatial/visual memory. Herlitz et al. (2013) examined 187 students for the effect of sex hormones, age, and development at puberty on their cognition regarding mental rotations. There was no relationship between mental performance and hormones or between sex hormones, age, development at puberty, and students' mental sex differences.
All of these studies allowed for exploration of factors which may impact how spatial ability or cognition increases and develops. Several studies have exhausted the investigation of instructional strategies and technological novelties, video games, and social setting and experiences. Furthermore, biological factors were explored which ranged from sex differences to the presence or absence of hormones.

Participants
There were 201 children involved in the study (M age = 14.2, range = 13.1-15.3). Children at this age range were selected because of their first introduction to formal spatial training via a technical drawing course. Moreover, previous research recognized this age range as being optimum for spatial development, and the training for such (Kayhan, 2005;Safhalter et al., 2016;Thurstone, 1948). Participants were intact groupings allocated to an experimental group exposed to a technical drawing course (n = 90), and the control group that was not exposed (n = 111). Students were selected from government secondary schools, in Barbados and are largely black from a varied social hierarchy. In the experimental group, there were 4 girls and 86 boys and in the control group 45 girls and 66 boys.

Materials and procedure
A spatial pretest was completed by students, within the first week of a 14-week term. Technical drawing instruction 120-min sessions occurred weekly for 10 weeks, and the posttest administered a week later.
Technical drawing students received activities involving namely mental rotation (see Figure 1) and other spatial concepts such as isometric and orthographic drawings. The technical drawing teachers would have involved activities and tasks drawn in two-and three-dimensional objects, which were viewed from different directions. Within instruction to students, activities and tasks were presented in various modes (chalkboard, computer, manipulatives, and paper). Students not exposed to the technical drawing course followed their normal classes, which involve subject areas (woodwork, metalwork, technology education, to mention a few) that may exposed them to broad spatial activities and tasks.
The spatial test used was a modified version of the paper and pencil MRT (Vandenberg & Kuse, 1978; see Figure 1). The modified 15-min MRT was comprised of 10 dichotomously scored items, which were similar to some used in the technical drawing sessions. Responding to items occurred  (Vandenberg & Kuse, 1978). by shading two letters from the four on an answer sheet representing their choice of figures that is similar to the criterion figure. The MRT measured whether the technical drawing course aid with increasing or developing of students' mental rotation ability. The Kuder-Richardson 20 (KR20) estimate of reliability coefficients was 0.83.

Results
The one-way analysis of covariance was performed in order to determine whether the technical drawing increased or developed students' mental rotation ability. Also, whether students exposed to the technical drawing course were significantly different than students not exposed. The MRT posttest scores were used as the dependent measure and pretest scores as a covariate. Moreover, effect size was estimated using partial eta squared (η 2 p ), because it is appropriate to use with analyses of variance and hence covariance. So Cohen's (1988) guidelines were used where small effect is 0.01, moderate effect is 0.06, and large effect is 0.14 (Cohen, 1988;Pallant, 2005). The analysis indicated a statistically significant difference between groups with a moderate effect size, F(1, 198) = 16.92, p < 0.0005, η 2 p = 0.08. Also the technical drawing students (M = 4.81, SD = 1.04) outperformed the control group (M = 4.18, SD = 0.83). These results suggest that the technical drawing increased or developed the students' mental rotation ability.
In order to comprehend the impact of technical drawing on students' MRT scores, a paired t-test was performed. Effect sizes were manually calculated and estimated using eta squared (η 2 ), because it is appropriate to use with analyses of paired t-test. Therefore, Cohen's (1988) guidelines were used, where small effect is 0.01, moderate effect is 0.06, and large effect is 0.14 (Cohen, 1988;Pallant, 2005). The analysis revealed there was a significant increase in technical drawing students' MRT scores from pretest (M = 3.14, SD = 1.

Discussion
Several studies have illustrated that spatial abilities can be increased or developed via various spatial training activities or tasks (Cheng & Mix, 2014;Katsioloudis et al., 2014;Safhalter et al., 2016;Sorby et al., 2013). Our study is novel as it shows the effect of technical drawing on Barbadian secondary school students' mental rotation ability. In addition, our study is the only of its kind in the Caribbean and Barbados. It was revealed that the 10 weeks of the technical drawing course, involving various spatial activities and tasks, significantly increased students' mental rotation ability. We added a contribution to knowledge as did previous studies that established associations between spatial training activities and tasks, and spatial abilities namely mental rotation. Cheng and Mix (2014) discussed their interest on the effects different types of spatial training would produce. Our technical drawing training activities and tasks within the study were similarly aligned with other spatial ability development studies. However, mental rotation ability was increased in both control and experimental groups, which was contrary to Cheng and Mix's (2014) study. An increase in the mental rotation ability in the control group may have occurred due to subject areas that involved some broad spatial training activities, tasks, and suitable resources (Baartmans & Sorby, 1996;Basham & Kotrlik, 2008;Ben-Chaim et al., 1988;Cohen et al., 2003;Potter & van der Merwe, 2001). Although both groups' mental rotation ability increased, the technical drawing students outperformed those not exposed suggesting technical drawing had greater effectiveness in increasing the students' mental rotation ability than other subject areas. Another inference is that the activities and tasks within technical drawing instruction were more specific to spatial training than to the other subject areas. Furthermore, technical drawing as a novel instructional method would produce higher reliability regarding students' spatial training, as it consistently provides spatial training activities. Other subject areas may vary the quantity and specificity of spatial training opportunities. In other words, these subjects employ classical and often static methods which may or may not provide spatial training that is either effective or efficient compared to technical drawing. Then, technical drawing should be elite when considering spatial training and increasing students' mental rotation ability.
Greater research is required for the development of spatial cognition regarding technical drawing and the effects of related factors such as modes of representation, length and type of training, and students' age and gender. Nevertheless, our findings are significant as it establishes technical drawing can aid in the increase of spatial cognition in the form of mental rotation ability. Hence, a case could be advanced to educational stakeholders who should be cognizant of the educational possibilities regarding the use of technical drawing to increase spatial cognition.