Perception of commuter rail transit riders/users of train services on the Accra-Nsawam Corridor

ABSTRACT Commuter trains are a popular mode of transportation among low-income earners in Ghana. However, due to the economic turmoil of the 1970s, the government struggled to invest in and manage this travel option effectively. With the increasing trend towards mass commuter services worldwide, this study aimed to examine how commuters perceive the quality of railway services in Ghana, using the Accra-Nsawam corridor as a case study. The study involved an on-board survey of 430 passengers using questionnaires. The results showed that factors such as speed, punctuality, safety, comfort, and improved customer care were significant predictors of commuters’ preference for commuter services. However, variables such as advanced technology and ticketing systems were found to be less important. The study recommends expanding rail services to other parts of the country while simultaneously improving technology.


Introduction
The availability of transportation services plays a vital role in connecting individuals with life-enhancing opportunities and serves as a suitable platform for assessing one's quality of life.Odame et al. (2023) and Yigitcanlar et al. (2019) emphasise that limited transport options can lead to social exclusion as people experience a reduction in their ability to access opportunities, social networks and goods and services.In order to ensure accessibility to facilities, many countries have witnessed significant innovation and expansion in both transport infrastructure and services (Hotor, 2016;Yobo, 2018).
Investment in the rail sector is widely considered as a key driver of economic growth and improved quality of life in countries like Russia, China, and the United States (2019).Similarly, the introduction of rail in post-colonial African countries such as Ghana and Nigeria offered a cheaper and a more efficient means of transporting agricultural produce and mineral resources from the hinterlands to major ports along the shores of Africa (Crentsil, 2015).To highlight the role of rail services in Nigeria's development, Lord Lugard, a British colonial administrator is known to have credited the quadrupling of Nigeria's groundnut production and improvement in their economy to the introduction of rail services highlighting the role of rail services in Nigeria's development (Ola, 2017).In Ghana, the cultivation and export of cash crops such as cocoa, rubber, gold, and timber have witnessed significant progress since the introduction of rail transport in 1903 (Jedwab & Moradi, 2011).
During the post-colonial period from 1950 to 1960, trains were the most preferred means of transport among many low and middle-income earners due to the unavailability of private cars and poor service delivery among public transport operators (Agyemang, 2019;Gumbo & Moyo, 2020).However, the economic turmoil of the 1970s and 1980s adversely affected the government's ability to invest in and manage the operations of the Ghana Railway Corporation, resulting in a rapid deterioration of coaches, railway equipment and the laying off of many railway workers (JIKA, 2014).In pursuit of a sustainable development in the transport sector, the need to consider commuter rail as an alternative to road transport became apparent.Thus, the government of Ghana commenced a strategic plan to revamp the railway sub-sector by reintroduction commuter railway services in Accra with the support of the World Bank.The World Bank provided support in the 1980s by allocating 116.7 million dollars for repairing existing coaches, purchasing Diesel Multiple Unit coaches to replace the wornout diesel-hydraulic coaches, and refurbishing terminals (Andoh, 2018).Additionally, international banks such as JBIC (Japan) and KFW Bank (Germany) financed the acquisition of 26 new mainline engines and 100 steel railway wagons in 2000's (Akwetteh et al., 2021).However, according to Obeng et al. (2022) these interventions had a minimal effect as only 0.6 percent of Ghana's population had access to rail services, despite significant improvements in the conditions of coaches and terminals on functional rail lines.To revive commuter train services and enjoy their numerous benefits, the government of Ghana also established a dedicated ministry for railway development in 2015.At the time of writing this manuscript, the Eastern Corridor line was still under construction and not yet open to commuters.
While the interventions mentioned above aimed to compete with the road sector, discussions and policy development regarding the quality and patronage of Commuter Rail Transit (CRT) services have largely excluded the voices of commuters, a critical segment of the railway market.Notably, donors and policymakers such as the Ministry of Transport, Ministry of Railways, and Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA) have been the main participants in these discussions.This study aims to fill this gap by exploring commuters' perceptions of the quality of railway services in Ghana, specifically on the Accra-Nsawam corridor.By this, the study seeks to answer one research question: what are commuters' perceptions of the quality of rail services on the aforementioned corridor?The choice of this corridor is due to the heavy traffic and passenger volumes that commute between the peri-urban communities of Nsawam and the central business district of Accra.This study deviates from previous studies on rail ways services in Ghana as existing literature largely centres on the general state of rail (JIKA, 2014), the politics of rail management (Andoh, 2018) and rail infrastructure development (Jedwab & Moradi, 2011).
The manuscript is organized as follows: the next section attempts to conceptualise commuter perceptions of transport services; this is followed by the methods and setting, results, discussions, conclusion, policy implications, and finally, limitations and areas for further research.

Perception of commuter transport services
Access to transportation is crucial for commuters to access essential services like schools and hospitals, improving their living standards.However, the quality of transportation services directly impacts the ease of use and overall experience for commuters during their trip (Ramos et al., 2019).Although there are various perspectives to analyse service quality, researchers, practitioners, and transport managers are increasingly focusing on passengers' perceptions of service quality (Eboli & Mazzulla, 2017).
Passengers' perception of service quality refers to their subjective impression of the services provided, based on their interaction with service providers such as rail or bus services (Laura & Gabriella, 2007).Parasuraman et al. (1985) and Eboli and Mazzulla (2017) note that passengers' opinions on service quality are determined by the difference between 'quality sought' (what a passenger looks out for) and 'quality perceived' (opinions about the level of quality enjoyed).Generally, the two main approaches to measuring perception of service quality are qualitative and quantitative, with the latter requiring quantifiable items such as fares paid, travel time, travel distance, and waiting time (Sinha et al., 2020).As an objective approach, the quantitative parameter requires quantifiable items like fares paid, travel time, travel distance and waiting time (Sinha et al., 2020).In some cases, Customer Satisfaction Surveys (CSS) are deployed to elicit opinions on a wide range of items while using a predefined scale of measure.Common scales used include the Likert, ratings numeric scales (De Oña & De Oña, 2015).Other quantitative approaches to measure service quality include Stated Preferences (SP) techniques where commuters can choose from a catalogue of hypothetical services that characterises a transport system.By selecting from the pool, a commuter prioritises one attribute of a transport service over the other and indicates what they consider valuable (Eboli et al., 2016).
In contrast, the qualitative approach requires commuters to evaluate transport services using their subjective impressions, including opinions on driver behaviour (Dell'olio et al., 2010), access to information (Mouwen, 2015), safety and security (De Oña et al., 2013) and fare collection systems (Zhao et al., 2013).Other parameters, such as the administration of complaints and co-passenger behaviour, are also emerging in the literature on service quality.
Different measurement approaches to service quality have also been developed, as changing commuter and transport circumstances induce different travel experiences and expectations (Taylor et al., 2009).For instance, rural/urban contexts, commuters' travel needs (Das & Pandit, 2013) and user experience (Guirao et al., 2015) influence what constitutes service quality.While there is an ongoing debate on the best measurement approach to service quality, this study explores the perception of railway service quality in Ghana from the perspective of commuters using both the quantitative approaches.
In 1991, (Fick & Ritchie, 1991) published a ground-breaking article on service quality, introducing the 5-dimensional approach consisting of tangibles, reliability, responsiveness, assurance, and empathy.Although this framework was initially designed for the airline and tourism sectors, Pérez et al. ( 2007) have adopted the same dimensions to evaluate service quality on buses.However, De Oña et al. (2013) criticized the 5-dimensional approach for being too general and proposed a modified version with 12 dimensions, which includes parameters such as fare, information, courtesy, safety, accessibility, cleanliness, space, temperature, proximity, speed, punctuality, and frequency.In addition to these frameworks, other contemporary measures of service quality exist, including Eboli & Mazzulla's (2017) three dimensions (service planning and reliability, comfort, and ancillary factors and network design) and Şimşekoğlu et al '.s (2015) three dimensions (Flexibility, convenience and safety).Although the preceding paragraph focused on bus services, the quality of commuter train services is also essential and can be evaluated based on key dimensions such as travel time, service availability, safety, security, convenience, comfort, and fares.These dimensions have been highlighted in studies by De Oña et al. ( 2013), Isikli et al. (2017) and Geetika & Nandan (2010).Therefore, this study adopted dimensions that reflect the practical issues of commuter train services in Accra, as service quality may vary from one context to another.

Methods and settings
The study site is located in the Greater Accra Metropolitan Area (GAMA) of Ghana, which comprises urban and peri-urban settlements.Specifically, the study focuses on the Accra-Nsawam rail corridor, which is a 40.6 km route that feeds into the Central Business District of Accra (Figure 1).This area is known to have various transport-related challenges, such as road traffic congestion (Ghana Statistical Service, 2013).Since there has been little research on riders' experience with rail services, an exploratory research approach was adopted to uncover new trends and problems.The study employed a quantitative research design to investigate commuters' perceptions of the quality of rail services.The target population consisted of commuters who use the Accra-Nsawam Commuter Rail Transit, with an estimated weekly average patronage of 8664 commuters.Based on the Yamane (1967) sample size determination formula, the study's sample size was 430 respondents.
Regular commuters were selected for an on-board survey using the accidental sampling technique.The survey consisted of two sections designed to elicit responses on respondents' perceptions of Commuter Rail Transit (CRT) services.Section A focused on respondents' background information, comprising 20 questions.Section B consisted of 35 Likert scale questions, segmented into five measurement themes: 'train services', 'train operation', 'terminal development', 'condition of coaches', and 'customer care'.Section B questions were informed by an extensive review of the literature.Examples of questions for 'train operations' include 'does the train leave on time?' and 'is the price per trip for using the train affordable?'.Questions for 'train services' included 'does the train announce stops well in advance?' and 'are there security personnel on the train?'.Two open-ended questions were included to allow respondents to express their opinions on the challenges of using CRT and suggest recommendations to address them.
Respondents who could not read or understand English were assisted by the survey team in completing the questionnaire.Data collection was conducted over five days along the corridor, with an average questionnaire completion time of 20 minutes.To encourage participation and ensure accurate responses, the survey team provided clear instructions and explanations of survey questions.Overall, the survey aimed to gather detailed and comprehensive feedback on CRT services from regular commuters.This information will be critical in informing future improvements to enhance the quality and efficiency of CRT services.
Data analysis began with descriptive statistics to summarize respondents' socioeconomic characteristics.This was followed by a Relative Importance Index (RII) of commuters' perception of the quality of train services.The RII uses a Likert scale of equal weight to rank variables, with Neutral, Strongly Disagreed, Disagree, Agree, and Strongly Agreed assigned values of 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5, respectively.The final score was determined by dividing the score of each variable of importance by the largest importance score, then multiplying by 100 percent.The resulting rank highlights respondents' perceived importance of various items (Aziz et al., 2016;Rooshdi et al., 2018).
An exploratory factor analysis was conducted to further explore passengers' perceptions of commuter service quality, as suggested by Eboli and Mazzulla (2017).The Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin test of sampling adequacy and Bartlett's test of sphericity were used to ensure the suitability of the data, and the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS) version 25 was employed for the analysis (Agyeman et al., 2019).Varimax Rotation was applied, and key items with higher factor loadings (above 0.5) were retained to develop new constructs.These constructs formed the basis for further exploration of factors that best explained respondents' perceptions of the quality of rail services on the Accra-Nsawam corridor (Eccarius & Lu, 2020).
Throughout the research process, ethical considerations were upheld.All prospective respondents were briefed about the nature of the research and allowed to participate voluntarily.Respondents were also assured of privacy, anonymity, and confidentiality to encourage honest and candid responses.

Profile of respondents
The survey was conducted on the Accra-Nsawam train corridor of the Greater Accra Metropolitan Area, with a total of 430 respondents participating.The majority of respondents were male, representing 61.63 percent, while female respondents accounted for 38.37 percent (Table 1).In terms of age, about 50.20 percent of respondents were under 30 years old, with those aged 60 and above having less than 1 percent representation in the distribution.Most of the respondents were either single (51.16%) or married (41.40%), with the percentage of divorced, widowed or cohabiting respondents being less than 8 percent.The majority of households had a size of 5 members.Senior High School was the dominant level of education among respondents, which is the common termination point for most Ghanaians (Ghana Statistical Service, 2012).Trading was the dominant occupation among respondents, representing 56.28 percent, followed by education (11.16%) and public administration (4.65%).
Regarding the distance travelled, 47 percent of commuters travelled more than 24 km, which is the entire length of the corridor.This group was mainly composed of traders who ply their trade in the Central Business District at the end of the 40 km corridor.About 70 percent of respondents indicated a cumulative travel period of fewer than 4 years when reviewing the time period spent travelling by trains.The fare system was based on the distance travelled, with the highest train fare recorded for the entire 40 km corridor being 6 Cedis ($0.72), although 63 percent of respondents claimed to have paid 4 Cedis ($0.48) since they did not cover the full length of the trip.

Ranking of commuters' perceptions on the quality of train services
The study examines the impact of service quality on commuter patronage of train services on the Accra-Nsawam Corridor by utilizing the Relative Importance Index (RII) to identify the top five attributes that influence usage.According to Table 2, the most critical attributes identified by commuters are related to reduced travel time, timely departure and arrival, and lower trip cost.These include statements such as 'it spends less time in traffic', 'it has helped reduce my travelling time to work', 'it leaves on time', 'it gets to my destination on time', and 'price per trip is cheaper'.
In contrast, the study identifies the least important attributes for commuters' perceptions of quality as relating to terminal and train conditions.From Table 2, the last five items on the ranking include 'the presence of first aid kits and fire extinguishers', 'adequate parking for passengers who want to park their vehicles at the terminal', 'benches at the station are clean', 'easily accessible to those with disability', and 'PA system announcement at the station'.These items were ranked between 30th and 35th and were associated with poor conditions at train stations and on trains.

Structure of commuter perception of quality of train services
The present research aimed to evaluate the factorial validity of the measurement of commuters' perception of quality by analysing the structure of their perception (see Table 3).To this end, exploratory factor analysis was conducted on the data collected from 430 valid cases.Before conducting the analysis, the reliability of the data was examined and found to be acceptable, as indicated by the minimum alpha value (alpha = 0.620) for the constructs under investigation (Taber, 2018).This provided evidence that all 35 variables represented the constructs being measured and supported the reliability of the 5-point scale.
The suitability of the data for factor analysis was examined preliminarily by evaluating the communality, which was found to be higher than the recommended minimum value of 0.3 for all variables (Agyeman et al., 2019).The results of the Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin test of sampling adequacy and Bartlett's test of sphericity (χ2 (430) = 9619.41,p < .05)were also acceptable for factor analysis, with values of 0.764 and above the minimum accepted value.Using an Eigenvalue of 1 as the cut-off point, 9-factor components were derived that explained about 69% of the total variance in the model.However, the results of the scree plot suggested retaining only 5 components, which accounted for 55% of the total variance in the model.This decision was supported by the results of the Parallel Analysis, which showed that the randomly generated values were lower than the initial eigenvalue.
The varimax rotation was used to identify the 5-factor components, and SPSS retained only items with a factor loading of at least 0.4, resulting in 24 items Note: SD -Strongly Disagree, D -Disagree, SA -Strongly Agree, A -Agree, N -Neutral, W-Weight.Source: Fieldwork, 2019.
being retained (Mensah & Dei, 2018).The new labels for the factor components included Terminal development, Train operation, Security, and Convenience.The reliability of these new categories was acceptable, as indicated by the observed alpha values (0.726-0.854), which exceeded the minimum acceptable value of 0.70 (see Table 3).Rotation Method: Varimax with Kaiser Normalization Factor 1, labelled 'Terminal Development', accounted for 29.35% of the variance in commuters' perception of the quality of train services, with an eigenvalue of 10.271.The Cronbach alpha value for this factor was 0.854, indicating high reliability.However, respondents had a lower overall mean of 1.95 for this factor, suggesting disagreement with key statements and confirming their perception of poor services related to terminal development, as shown in Figure 2. The retained variables in this factor had factor loadings ranging from 0.499 to 0.738 and included constructs such as accessibility to basic goods, availability of clean benches and washrooms at the station, adequate shelter, presence of different modes of transportation, and shorter distance to one's home to the train terminal.
The second construct, Train Services, had an Eigenvalue of 3.7 and explained 10.6 percent of the total variance.The retained variables had factor loadings ranging from 0.433 to 0.684, and included items such as longer train operating hours, rapid travel time, friendly staff, high frequency of service, and safety while riding.The construct had a high Cronbach alpha coefficient of 0.797 and recorded the highest mean of 2.3, still closer to Disagree than Agree.The third construct, Security and Accessibility, had an Eigenvalue of 2.089 and explained 6 percent of the total variance.The retained variables had factor loadings ranging from 0.462 to 0.687, and included items such as video monitors, security personnel, adequate parking space, and ease of use for commuters with disabilities.However, this construct recorded the lowest mean of 1.68, indicating that commuters perceived poor security and accessibility.
The fourth construct, Coach Conditions, explained 5 percent of the total variance, with an Eigenvalue of 1.755.The retained variables had factor loadings ranging from 0.496 to 0.736 and included items such as the presence of first aid kits, directional signs, cleanliness of benches, and whether the train looked dilapidated.From the factor analysis, the condition of the train was the second construct that recorded the least mean of 1.78, implying that commuters perceived poor coach conditions.(asseen in Figure 3).
The final component measures the level of convenience that commuters experience when using the train service, with an eigenvalue of 1.49, explaining 4.2 percent of the total variance.The factor loading of retained variables ranges from 0.498 to 0.736 and includes important factors such as the availability of adequate seating, presence of handrails, adequate lighting, and the presence of security personnel onboard.However, this construct recorded a lower mean of 1.85, indicating that respondents disagreed with the perceived convenience of the train service.

Discussions
In terms of ranking commuter's perceptions of the top five qualities of train services, exclusive usage of rail tracks by commuter trains was found to result in shorter travel times, allowing commuters to increase punctuality and arrive on time for various opportunities.The inclusion of departure/arrival time in the top five also reflects the efforts of the Ghana Railway Company Limited (GRC) to brand its services as the most time-efficient travel option, hence the high rating accorded.This finding is in line with Andoh's (2018) identification of religious compliance to travel and departure time as key items that increase school children and informal traders' preference for this commuter train.
On the other hand, commuters' bottom five qualities related to the absence of benches, public address systems, first aid box/fire extinguishers and facilities for persons with disability.Although these five items could offer increased access to commuters, the attributes of the commuters on this corridor may account for the low rating recorded.For instance, the Ghana Statistical Service (2012) rating of Nsawam as a low to middleincome peri-urban community suggests the presence of captive travellers whose travel needs tend to focus more on travel time or cost than the conditions of coaches or terminal.Additionally, the preference for travel time and cost was confirmed by Majid et al. (2021) andHakimi et al., (2021), who identified these as key to trips by low-income commuters in Malaysia and India.
Regarding terminal development, as seen in Figure 2, the inadequacy of shelters at the terminals was found to be the result of poor infrastructure and the activities of hawkers and homeless people who have converted such shelters into trading or sleeping facilities.Inadequate shelter exposes commuters to harsh weather conditions, hence the lower rating.This finding confirms the assertions of 2016 who identifies low funding for terminal development as a key constraint limiting the delivery of improved services to commuters, as seen in the deplorable state of many facilities in various state-owned transport services.
Faster travel time associated with train service was identified as the dominant influencing factor of train services This confirms Mensah & Ankomah's (2018) assertions on how faster travel time favours specific commuter modes like taxis and trains.Security and accessibility recorded the lowest mean.This affirmed disagreement on key statements that relate to accessibility for persons with disabilities, presence of adequate car parks, presence of video monitors, and feeling of safety at the terminal.The low rating accorded to his contrast confirms the assertions of Andoh (2018) who identifies attention to 'commuters' personal safety as a key area that has received little attention from the Ghana Railway Authority.To Andoh (2018), this comes on the back of overcrowded trains and the low visibility of security personnel at various rail terminals.
The condition of the train recorded a lower mean of 1.78, which may be due to the observed difference in the conditions of trains on other corridors in Ghana, particularly the Tema-Accra corridor.This corridor is known to have relatively new coaches with fitting leather seats, no protruding objects or sharp metals, and the presence of comfortable seats that offer a higher level of user experience.These identified qualities of transport services have also been remarked by Ojo et al., (2014) and Mensah & Ankomah (2018) in their study on service quality in Ghana's' transport sector.In both studies, the conditions of the means of transport became a critical variable in riders' level of satisfaction and judgment of quality service as seen in this study.
Lastly, the convenience factor received a low mean score of 1.85, indicating that commuters were dissatisfied with the availability of adequate seats, handrails, lighting, and security personnel on board.This sentiment was also reported by Odame et al. (2020)) in their study on public transport services in Accra, where most modes of transport lacked handrails and security personnel.The absence of these support services not only impedes the movement of vulnerable population groups, but also portrays them as heavily reliant on the general population.Andoh (2018) advocates for immediate interventions, as the lack of these facilities increases 'commuters' exposure to injury, especially during rush hours.

Conclusion
In this study, passengers' perceptions of the quality of service on the Accra-Nsawam rail corridor were examined using five variables: terminal development, train operation, security and accessibility, convenience, and conditions of the coach.The transport cost was identified as the primary factor that attracted many low-income dwellers to this service, in addition to shorter travel time, less time in traffic, and prompt departure or arrival times.However, critical issues relating to the conditions of the trains were rated low.Respondents' observations, as well as comparisons with other rail corridors like the Accra-Tema corridor, influenced respondents' perceptions of service quality.Comfortable coaches, cleanliness, adequate seating for passengers, and lighting systems also recorded lower ratings.These findings suggest that improvements are needed in several areas, including train conditions and amenities, to enhance the overall quality of service on the Accra-Nsawam rail corridor.
It can be concluded that the public transport system in Ghana faces several challenges, including poor road infrastructure, inadequate public transport options, and low-quality transport services.The poor road infrastructure affects the overall efficiency of public transport, making it difficult for transport providers to offer timely and reliable services to commuters.Inadequate public transport options, such as limited routes and transport modes, further exacerbate the challenges faced by commuters.Furthermore, the quality of public transport services in Ghana is a significant concern, as identified by several studies.The condition of trains and buses, availability of adequate seats, handrails, adequate lighting, and security personnel on board are essential aspects of transport services that impact commuters' satisfaction and safety.The absence of such support services not only impairs the movement of vulnerable population groups but also projects this group as heavily dependent on the general population.To improve the public transport system in Ghana, several interventions are necessary, including the development of better road infrastructure, expansion of public transport options, and improvement of transport services' quality.These interventions will not only enhance the efficiency and effectiveness of public transport but also promote the overall well-being of commuters.

Policy Implication
To create liveable cities, it is important to prioritize efficient mobility and connectivity.
A key aspect of this is integrating transport policies that focus on commuter trains, as they can offer improved travel options for vulnerable groups such as the elderly and lowincome individuals.For the government, understanding user needs is crucial to improving non-satisfactory services and offering dedicated services that meet people's travel requirements.Furthermore, the Ghana Railway Development Authority, through the Ghana Railways Authority (GRA) can utilize the findings of this study to identify areas to enhance the commuter experience on this corridor.Specifically, low ratings on the condition of the rail terminal, coaches and train services offer a platform to develop strategies for an enhanced experience and boost the appeal of train services among Ghanaians.
Even though the contextual nature of service quality makes difficult to access comparable data across Africa, the findings of this study may be applicable to many countries in the Africa given similar demography, travel characteristics and socio-economic position.Of course, the need to explore nuances will be useful to address the needs of minority travellers.

Limitation and areas for further research
Some passengers were unable to complete the questionnaire before reaching their destinations, and despite being advised to submit the instrument to the train conductors, not all complied.This necessitated the study team to increase the number of visits to the terminal in order to increase the chances of meeting new respondents.Moreover, the on-board survey technique did not provide enough time for the research team to assist respondents who could not read and write English.However, respondents who refused to participate due to the lack of pens were provided with envelopes and pens to facilitate their participation.The respondents were allowed to keep the pen as a souvenir and submit the questionnaire in the envelope to the train conductors or the research team the next time they boarded the train.
It's worth noting that this study only focused on the Accra-Nsawam route, and the conclusions drawn from it may not be applicable to other routes.Thus, future studies on the quality of train services on the Nsawam-Accra route would provide the necessary data for comparison.

Figure 1 .
Figure 1.Commuter Rail Transit Routes in Accra.Source: Cartographic and Geographic Information System (GIS) Unit (Department of Geography -University of Cape Coast)

Figure 3 .
Figure 3. Conditions of commuter trains on the Accra-Nsawam corridor.

Table 1 .
Profile of respondents.

Table 2 .
Relative Importance Index (RII) of commuters' perception of quality.

Table 3 .
Reliability analysis of constructs.
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