ARCHITECTURAL HISTORY AND THEORY The evolution of railway station architecture in Java

Almost all existing railway engineering systems in Java, from those established at the inception of the railway to those more recently developed, have already been investigated. However, the evolution of railway station architecture on the island of Java has not been explored in depth. Currently, not all stations are functional or in good condition, some being unused, damaged, dilapidated, or neglected. The transformation of stations, between the establishment of the railway in Java and the arrival of the Japanese in 1942, demands attention and more detailed study because it could show the genesis of the island’s railway station architecture. This study finds that Java’s station architecture has originality because it was designed to deal with the conditions in the island. The station buildings are testament to engineers’ pragmatic work before 1900 to deal with geography and climate and architects’ efforts after 1900 to explore local architectural knowledge.


Introduction
Since the advent of the steam locomotive and rail network in the early nineteenth century, there has been much discussion about the architecture of the railway station. Meeks (,1956, 26-43) made a prominent contribution to the description of station architecture by classifying station buildings in Europe and the Americas. Meeks also discussed the type of station, with each period of railway development consisting of several types of stations. Pevsner (1976, 226) wrote about the changing style of the railway station building. Schivelbusch (1986,179) discussed the two faces of the railway station. As a building of the Industrial Revolution, the station has two important parts: the railway hall and the reception building. However, Schivelbusch did not discuss the railway station as a building also present in the colonies. In contrast to Meeks, Pevsner, and Schivelbusch, Richards and MacKenzie (1986,2-3) wrote about the social history of stations, including those in the colonies. Richards and MacKenzie discussed the station through the lens of art, society, politics, and warfare. They discussed the development -mostly in Europe -of the architecture of the railway station, an iron and glass construction typical of the nineteenth century. Although Richards and MacKenzie discussed stations in the colonies, they did not pay attention to those in Java.
Colonial railway stations in South Asia and Africa have been the subject of a diverse discussion, which is sufficient to illustrate that the station is a new object that has a significant influence on various aspects of the colony. In South Asia, the stations that have received the most attention are those in India; the railway station became a symbol of the colonizer's advanced technical knowledge and power to control India (Mukhopadhyay ,2018, 103). Ali and Qi (2021, 195) discussed the transformation of the identity of the city of Lahore due to the existence of the railway station. In the case of stations in Africa, Maravall (2019, 32) considered the relationship between the location of stations built during the colonial period and the growth and density of the indigenous population of French Algeria. The effects of the placement of railway stations on population clustering and traditional dispersed agricultural production in Nigeria was discussed by Okoye, Pongou, and Yokossi (2019, 324).
The research on station architecture in Java has focused on architectural style, periodization, station placement, and the current condition of the stations. Other aspects that have an influence on the architectural appearance of railway buildings, namely background study by and experience of the architect or engineer, the availability of suitable materials, the logistics of developing the railway system in the Dutch East Indies, especially Java, and the railway policy (spoorwegpolitiek), have not been discussed in depth. Therefore, the exploration of the architectural evolution of PT. KAI's (PT. Kereta Api Indonesia, The Indonesian State Railway Company) more than 400 stations built between 1862 and 1942 is still incomplete.
The following description, based on publications by PT. KAI, Van Ballegoijen de Jong, and others, provides background information on station architecture in Indonesia. PT. KAI, as the only railway operator in Indonesia today, describes the station building as a company asset. The books published by PT. KAI provide beautiful photographs of railway stations in Java taken in the twenty-first century but their descriptions of the architecture of station buildings are limited to some information about station architectural styles, which were popular in Europe in the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. Similarly, in his book entitled Spoorwegstations op Java, Van Ballegoijen de Jong presents many photographs and divides the architectural timeline of the stations in Java into three periods: 1867-1900/19101900/1910-1930and 1930-1942(Van Ballegoijen de Jong 1993. Handinoto suggested that the placement of four Staatsspoorweg (SS) stations in East Java at the beginning of the construction of the railway network was related to urban development. Currently, the existence of the stations is a problem due to the uncontrolled development of the city (Handinoto 1999, 49). Muthmainnah, Lukito, and Kurniawan (2020) examined the history of Cianjur station and focused on the relationship between the station and the city of Cianjur, describing the station's role as a new element in the colonial period. Despite the work of Van Ballegoijen de Jong, Handinoto, and Muthmainnah, the evolution of railway station architecture in Java has not received sufficient attention to date.
The description above shows that research on the evolution of railway station architecture in Java should be carried out in more depth so that the results can be used to support the current use of the railway system and the preservation of its architecture. Therefore, this study sought answers to the following questions. How has the architecture of railway stations evolved in Java? What factors have influenced station architecture in Java? Has the background knowledge of engineers and architects affected the architecture of stations? The aim of the study was to find an explanation for the architectural diversity of station buildings in Java, particularly for the variety in scale, decoration, layout, and stations in the colonial context. The findings of this study will increase the understanding of the considerable contribution of engineers and architects to the development of railway infrastructure, especially the railway network in Java during the colonial period.

Methods
This study chronologically classifies the stations in Java and explains the underlying conditions to demonstrate the evolution of station architecture in the island. It used two main sources of information: visual sources and textual references. Visual sources included architectural drawings, photographs, and maps. Newspapers and various reports from and journals of those involved in the planning, construction, and exploitation of railways were used as written or textual references. Overall, the station buildings from the colonial period in the inventory of PT. KAI were built between 1862 and 1942 (https://heritage.kai.id/). The architectural classification of stations in Java is not according to station status (central station, island station, etc.) but according to the architectural style, which is the main expression of both function and meaning. The results of the classification and explanations of the typology and morphology of SS, Netherlandsch Indische Spoorweg Maatschappij (NISM), and Semarang Joana Stoomtram Maatschappij (SJS) stations demonstrate the evolution of the Java railway station architecture related to the caesura of 1900 because the Ethical Policy's introduction (1901).

Results and discussion
The new finding of this study is that the interruption of 1900 can be used to divide the period of the architectural evolution of Java railway stations into two stagesbefore and after the introduction of the Ethical Policy (1901) (Figure 1). The railway station classification shows clear and significant differences in architecture before and after that interruption. The Ethical Policy led to disparities in infrastructure and railway development policy. This means that the evolution of the railway station in Java does not correspond to the phases outlined by Meeks who divided the chronological development of stations into five periods (Meeks 1956, 26): functionally pioneering early stage (1830-1845); standardization was accelerated by mechanical advances (1850); increasing sophistication arising from stations gaining three main parts, a vestibule, waiting room, and cross-platform (1860-1890); megalomania characterized by unprecedentedly gigantic size ; and finally, the twentieth-century style . Although the signs of sophistication and megalomania were evident in station architecture in Europe before 1900, they were not seen in Java in station buildings designed by the engineers from the Netherlands who were involved in the construction of the island's railways. After 1900, the twentieth-century style was applied by European architects who had the opportunity to plan and build stations in Java and attempted to create designs that were adapted to the conditions in the island. Different circumstances encouraged the architects to make adaptations to their designs.
To date, there is no information about the morphology of the colonial era railway station in Java. The evolution of the railway station in the period under review exhibits a distinct pattern, which follows the decrees or laws issued to run the projects for the construction of the railway lines. Changes were already being made by the time the engineers began to understand and address the specific conditions in Java, particularly its climate that required adaptions to the buildings.

The genesis
Documents that mention the designer or architect of stations in Java before 1900 are difficult to find. Usually, available documents refer to the engineer who supervised the development of the railway line. The engineers applied European technical knowledge to tropical Java. The aesthetic architectural aspects were part of their civil engineering practice. Therefore, the conditions under which stations were built can be understood since architectural style was not a priority before 1900. It may be stated that the early presence of the form and meaning of station architecture in Java was the outcome of the application of experimental knowledge by engineers from the Netherlands who adapted their knowledge to the tropics. The typology and architectural style of Java's prominent railway stations were initially neoclassical but in a very simple form; their architectural appearance indicated a style that was more or less in line with the earlier eclecticism of the Netherlands.
The architectural appearance of a simple form of neoclassic style was present in the period between 1864 and 1874. This first variant was based on Gouvernement Besluit-G.B. (the Decree of the Governor-General) No. 1 of 28 August 1862, to build the Semarang-Vorstenlanden line, which was given to NISM, and was the reason for the presence of the first railway station in Java. NISM built a station with a very simple architecture and small stops (halte) with almost no ornamentation. The symmetry of the facade was emphasized. Function and cost were the main considerations in the design making. Semarang Station, Kedung Jati Station, and Solo Balapan Station are examples of the application of the neoclassical style in a very simple form. The architecture of the first variant of the station is proof of the involvement of Javanese workers in the infrastructure development projects. J.P. de Bordes, the chief engineer, wrote that the Javanese workers were reliable. He was highly satisfied that even though the Javanese workers had almost no formal education, they were able to produce work of high quality (Van Doorn 1994, 86;De Bordes 1871, 103).
The second variant appeared between 1875 and 1890. It consisted of three series of sober neoclassical styles and was built by SS. The first series was based on were characterized by the use of a large sheet of metal to cover the emplacement which was built at the beginning of station establishment. The opening of the Suez Canal made the transportation of materials from Europe easier than before, hence the use of metal increased in Java. The SS stations that fall into this category display a regular geometric arrangement to underline their unified design. The axis in the middle of the facade indicates the symmetry of the design. The adjustment of the roof for tropical conditions is not optimal. The slope of the roof is quite gentle with only a small tritisan (extended roof). Columns, as primary structural elements, are incorporated into the aesthetics of the building. Architecturally, the design of the first-class and second-class station types is similar. Small stops and abri are no more than shelters because at that time the priority of the service was rolling stock rather than the passengers' needs.
The third variant, which appeared between the years 1881 and 1900, shows a modest eclecticism. The present eclectic wooden chalet style, inspired by the rural vernacular architecture of Alpine countries, was based on G.B. No. 5 of 18 March 1881, for the construction of the Semarang Joana line by SJS. Function and cost considerations were the main priorities for the construction of the SJS stations. Wood was used as the main material to reduce costs because it was easy to obtain and the price was more affordable. One of the characteristics of this style is the finial ornament with detailed wood carvings. The chalet style was widely applied in the Netherlands in the 1880s, especially in domestic architecture, but it also strayed into the design of other types of buildings. Two factors may have prompted the adoption of the chalet style for the stations. First, engineers working on station construction in Java became acquainted with this style during their studies at the Polytechnic School in Delft in the Netherlands. Second, the books by Eugen Heinrich Gugel (1832Gugel ( -1905, who was the first professor of architecture at the Polytechnic School in Delft (hetnieuweinstituut.nl), were a source of information. One of Gugel's publications was the series on Architectonische vormleer (Architectural Morphology), 1880-1888. The advantages of applying the chalet style with extensive timber materials were that the building could be built quickly and the construction was lighter, easy to adjust, and cost less.
These three variants exist because the background knowledge of the engineers who played a role in the construction of the railway network in Java was gained at the Royal Military Academy (Koninklijke Militaire Academie-KMA) in Breda or at the civil engineering faculty of the Polytechnic School (Politechnische School) in Delft. Both institutions adopted Theorisch en Practish Bouwkundig Handboek (Theoretical and Practical Architectural Manual, first edition 1827-1834) by W.C. Brade, which referenced J.N.L. Durand. Aspiring engineers used the Durand Manual as a learning guide for buildings and infrastructure. The emphasis on the economic and pragmatic aspects of simple design, which requires a good knowledge of basic geometries, regularities, and symmetry, is a key concept of the Durand Manual, making function one of the highest priorities in designing.
Standard design manuals specifically for the Dutch East Indies were available in the mid-nineteenth century. Bruijn does not discuss station architecture in his book, but he explains the specific materials and construction methods used to address climate problems in the Dutch East Indies. Learning from domestic architecture, De Bruijn firmly reminds the reader that the climate demands attention. There must be adjustments to the layout and placement of ventilation to suit local climatic conditions. In the case of economic aspects, De Bruijn provides a detailed report on the estimated cost and labor use of the project in Fort Willem I and several government buildings in Makassar-Sulawesi. De Bruin's explanations and reminder serve as a guide for the engineer.
Lakerveld and Brocx provide a comprehensive discussion of engineers and builders in the Dutch East Indies in their three-volume Manual, published shortly before the introduction of railways to Java. The third volume of this manual, although not long, contains chapters providing information on the general arrangement and spatial distribution of station buildings, as well as iron rail bridges, in the Netherlands. Lakerveld and Brocx state that to improve the transportation of natural resources from mines, agricultural crops, and other goods, as well as to increase the movement of both Europeans and locals, trains would soon be present in the Dutch East Indies.
The engineers based their work on an architectural manual that provided standardized designs (Normaalontwerp) because they were not architects. The manual consisted of classical architectural arrangements and vocabulary, such as the colonnade (column row) with Doric, Ionic, Corinthian, Tuscan, or tympanum capitals, and was the main guide for engineers in designing station buildings in the Dutch East Indies, especially Java. This situation is the starting point for station architecture in Java being different from that in the Netherlands.

After the caesura
The architectural design of stations in Java was transformed at the beginning of the twentieth century. After 1900, the stations in Java needed renovation and expansion, and some were even torn down and new buildings were constructed. Therefore, the architectural styles after 1900 are more varied. This is an indication that station architecture was being evaluated and continuously adapted to the needs of users. The presence of architects who graduated from the Delft Institute of Technology and the implementation of the Ethical Policy contributed to the varied station architectural styles after 1900. Some architects were tasked with creating a representative station for a particular place, decorated with prominent architectural idioms.
It is difficult to find the legal basis for private railway companies constructing and maintaining lines and renovating stations in Java after 1900. In the first variant after 1900 -the steel frame station (1900-1915)steel frames were used to cover the island-type station buildings. The presence of frame structure technology confirms that engineers wished to apply the same architectural trends to Java as those in the Netherlands in particular and Europe in general. Stations owned by private companies such as NISM and SJS began to use metal structures to cover the emplacements. The use of new technology without a definite style reference was a pragmatic decision of designers for efficiency; therefore, steel structures were the best choice.
The second variant is a single-sided station with an eclectic chalet-style architecture constructed between 1900 and 1915, which appeared almost simultaneously with the steel frame station. This variant was adopted for small stations, but with a renovated waiting room for first-and second-class passengers (Van Ballegoijen de Jong 1993, 28). Its attractive appearance and easy construction with readily available materials prompted the preference for this style for new stations. Easily accessible sources of wood may also be one of the reasons for choosing the chalet style. In the early twentieth century, transportation of wood from the forest became easier and faster because the light-rail network was already connected to the main Semarang-Vorstenlanden line. However, heavy rainfall and exposure to intense sunlight for six months of the year have been shown to hinder the use of wood. Walls must be plastered to withstand the climatic conditions. The most noteworthy element of the chalet style is the roof ornament. Ornaments (especially for the roof) are made of wood. NISM adopted this style for two decades (1901)(1902)(1903)(1904)(1905)(1906)(1907)(1908)(1909)(1910)(1911)(1912)(1913)(1914)(1915)(1916)(1917)(1918)(1919)(1920). However, no information is available about the architect.
The third variant after the caesura is the Indies architecture adopted between 1900 and 1915. The presence of architects after 1900 gave new color to life in Java. These architects trained at the Polytechnic School in Delft made their mark on station architecture. Learning from the experiences of their engineer predecessors, the architects had plenty of information in their repertoire to deal with the geographic conditions and find solutions to problems caused by the tropical climate. The crux of the problem was the roof design and airflow in the space, which were handled by taking into account the volume of the building and the ventilation of the roof. This is a characteristic of Indies architecture and is very clearly seen in stations on the Cirebon-Kroya line. This line was developed by SS after the issuance of a Government Decree on 31 December 1912 (Delftsche Courant 5 February 1912). The design of the station was entrusted to J. van Gendt, the bouwkundig ingenieur (civil engineer) of SS. The Indies style is seen in the twentieth-century generation of SS stations, after the company began to abandon neoclassical ornamentation in their stations. SS did not adopt a wooden chalet style but preferred to use brick walls in an attempt to cope with the climatic conditions. The use of a tritisan, as well as the selection of certain materials, indicate the effort to adapt the station's architecture to the climatic conditions of Java. Following the example of SS, SJS and NISM also built stations using the Indies style after 1920. On the NISM railway network, there is only one station hall building, Solo Balapan Station, in the Indies style. The new hall building of Solo Balapan was designed by a private architectural firm, Thomas Karsten & A. Schouten.
The fourth variant is an architectural style influenced by art deco and Nieuwe Bouwen (modern building), which developed in Java between 1920 and 1942. The efforts of the architects to apply the architectural knowledge they had acquired from Western higher education to a tropical climate resulted in a new variant of the station in Java, the modern functionalist station, expressed as a combination of art deco and Nieuwe Bouwen  styles (De Vries and Segaar-Höweler 2009, 76). NISM and SJS never adopted this variant. After 1920, SS began to renovate existing stations and build new stations, such as Tanjung Priok Station, Pasar Senen, Bandung, and Batavia Zuid. Technological innovation and new materials combined with architectural splendor to demonstrate the spirit of modernity in the early twentieth century. In Java, the art deco architectural form of stations was adapted to the tropical climate. The application of geometric shapes and straight lines, combined with a smooth concrete surface, is the boldest expression of the art deco trend in Europe. The SS engineers C.W. Koch and J. van Gendt, who graduated as "Civiel en Bouwkundig Ingenieur" from the Politechnische School in Delft (Delftsche Courant 12 June 1898; Delftsche Courant 5 February 1912), played a major role in producing this variant.
The transformation of the station architecture in Java shows that there was interaction and collaboration between the Netherlands and Java before 1870 in developing the architectural style of stations on the island. The involvement of Javanese workers from the time of construction of the first terminus is very important for this collaboration. Clearly, there was an imposition of knowledge from the West, as Setiadi describes in his thesis, but there was also adaptation to local conditions by the Dutch (Setiadi 2021). Gradually, the knowledge embedded in Javanese architecture of how to deal with climatic and geographic conditions was adopted by the Dutch. After the caesura, the exchange increased, as evidenced by the exploration and application of Indies architecture that cannot be separated from the interaction between the colonizer and the colonized.
Similar to the representation of British imperialism in the station architecture of India (Kerr 2003, 291), the history of Dutch colonialism in Java was recorded in the architecture of the island's railway stations. Kerr (2003, 291) suggests that although Mumbai's Victoria Terminus is in an Indo-Saracenic style, the small stations show the simple style of British rural architecture. In Java, the engineers concentrated on setting up the system, not on the architecture of the station buildings. The railway was the most crucial modern invention for conquering space and time. It would be accurate to state that Java's modernism required a railway infrastructure and vice versa. This confirms Mrazek statement that railway technology is a vehicle for introducing changing values and civilizations (Mrazek 2006, 11). The Dutch engineers in Java faced problems of geography, weather, and worker skills, which were compounded by economic considerations. Yet, the diverse architecture of station buildings hints at the fact that there was reasoning behind the variety in scale, decoration, layout, etc. of the many stations.
Between 1900 and 1920, when metal shed architecture and the chalet style were used by private railway companies, SS applied the style that became known as the Indies architectural style. SS then began to move toward modern functionalism. The time overlap is likely due to the architects involved in station design. However, their contribution to railway stations in Java was an important part of the formation of the colonial state. The architects' prestigious design for the monumental railway station buildings is a testimony to the efforts they made to explore the value of local architecture.
Before 1900, railway company engineers in Java, whose job it was to design stations, relied on the designing skills they had been taught in the Netherlands during their engineering training at Delft or Breda. As pioneers, the engineers almost always faced uncertainty about the supply of materials, construction equipment, and labor and the conditions in the field (Akihary, 1996:26). The geographic conditions of the island of Java often posed challenging problems that drove the engineers into taking experimental measures. The different terrains and climates required creativity to cope with them, meaning that the knowledge acquired and brought from the Netherlands had to be adapted, rethought, and reformulated in an environment with a tropical climate. Thus, station architecture continued to evolve from one railroad project to another. This concurs with Nikolaus Pevsner's (Pevsner 1976, 234) statement that "in any country, they all seem to grow forever." Initially, as the engineering aspects of the projects were considered much more important than the architectural appearance of stations, it was enough to borrow the style that was popular in the Netherlands. The engineers who worked on the construction of the railway stations in Java very clearly borrowed the idioms of architectural styles from Europe. However, whatever the borrowed idiom, stations in Java are always different from stations in Europe, more specifically stations in the Netherlands. Although related to the styles existing in Europe, the architectural designs of stations in Java do not follow the path described by Pevsner who chronologically summarized the evolution of railway station style. Pevsner's discussion started from the very simple style of the earliest stations, such as Liverpool Road Station in Manchester built in 1830, which followed a Greek style characterized by monumentality. Rundbogenstil, with wide lunette windows, was a solution to the problem of terminal station design. After beaux arts in the late nineteenth century came the baroque and medieval styles (Pevsner 1976, 226-228). Pevsner also emphasized the arrival of the concourse as an important element in the Classical Revival. The last stage in station design was the modern style which took a long time to adjust to the international modern (Pevsner 1976, 232 and 234).
In the early twentieth century, changes occurred after the Decentralization Act (1870) and the Ethical Political Policy (1901) were enacted. The city gained the power to realize ideas for the development of its own territory. This situation affected infrastructure development because all things had to be discussed with the city government. The Decentralization Act stimulated the growth of the construction sector, which provided architectural firms and architects who graduated from the Delft Institute of Technology with career opportunities in the Dutch East Indies, particularly Java (van Roosmalen 2002, 88). Station architecture in the twentieth century, which was influenced by the Ethical Policy of 1901, when the recognition of intrinsic local values grew apace with the increasing self-awareness of the expanding Dutch community (Jessup 1985;van Roosmalen 2002;Akihary 1990;Passchier 2009Passchier . &, 2016.
Were the typology and morphology of railway stations in Java in step with other architectural developments in the island? The evolution of the railway station was influenced by the introduction of the Ethical Policy, which also affected passenger service facilities and administrative space, including offices and telegram and postal services whose expansion, necessitated by the increasing volume of activity, required approval from the city government. Although the architectural form of the station began to reflect a growing appreciation for the creative skills of architects, the conditions of Java, which were different from those of the Netherlands, also prompted architects to reinterpret the architectural knowledge they brought from the Netherlands. As a result, art deco, Nieuwe Bouwen, and modernist styles were adapted to local climatic conditions to replace the neoclassical and chalet styles.

Conclusion
The evolution of railway station architecture in Java shows uniqueness and originality, although the stations have a simplistic appearance compared to European stations, in particular those in the Netherlands. Stations are not just buildings but have meaning as signifiers of new pages in history. The architecture of Javanese stations is sometimes straightforward or sober but sometimes expressive. Their outward appearance is made to deal with conditions that exist in Java.
The uniqueness and originality of railway stations in Java can be observed from three specific points. First, as a result of a compromise with existing conditions, the neoclassical and eclectic architectural styles applied to stations appear in their simplest forms. The sophistication of European station characteristics prior to 1900 is not present in Java because Dutch engineers working from architectural manuals faced problems specific to the island. Stations in Java could be copies of those in the Netherlands, but adjustments had to be made. Engineers working on the construction of the railway network in Java faced an uphill battle with a different geography and climate, technologies, and different skills of workers, as well as the economic conditions. Second, although station design followed established standards, efforts were undoubtedly made to perpetuate the Javanese station as a new gateway. For the city, the railway station is a new gateway that replaces the old on the main roads. Visitors arriving by train gain their first impression of the city from the railway station as the entrance to the city. The megalomania characterized by the giant size of some European stations, as icons of the city gates, is not present in Java. However, various stations in Java, especially the main stations, were planned as new city gates. Good examples are Semarang Station (1867), Solo Balapan Station (1869), and NISM's Tawang Station (1914). SS also had stations that functioned as icons of the new city gates: Bandung Station (1930), Tanjung Priok Station (1924, and Jakarta Kota Station (1929).
Third, the station buildings were adapted to better suit the climate. Material and technological innovations after 1900 added nuance to the design of stations in Java. Architects applied their skills creatively to a tropical environment by paying attention to local values. This growing interest went hand in hand with the exploration of sleek modernist architecture and art deco building styles and influenced the evolution of railway stations in Java.
The railway stations of Europe have been dubbed monuments to the Industrial Revolution. The railway station was used as a space to facilitate the movement of industrial goods, and the roof covering the emplacement for the trains required special technical solutions that could only be sought using the new technologies of Industrial Revolution products, namely glass and steel. These characteristics also appear in Java, but in a much simpler form, for example, in the use of overarching metal roofing. SS used this construction the most from the beginning of network development. When designing stations in Java, engineers naturally put a great deal of thought into solving in the most reasonable way the problems caused by the tropical climate, although they did not have the same knowledge as architects. Before 1900, the solutions provided by engineers to the conditions in Java represented a substantial achievement in technical engineering. After 1900, architects had to rethink their Western architectural knowledge due to the specific conditions in Java. As a result, the conventions of art deco, Nieuwe Bouwen, and modernism were molded to adapt them to the local climate.