‘Green’ practices and value co-creation: does guest culture make a difference?

Abstract In an increasingly competitive environment, many hotels have implemented sustainable practices and have actively involved the guests in the generation of unique experiences through the value co-creation process. In this sense, this paper aims at analysing the impact of ‘green’ practices and value co-creation on hotel image, guest trust, satisfaction, and loyalty, and to assess the moderating role of culture, conceived as related to guest nationality. To test the model, a quantitative method based on a sample of 611 guests from Spain and Colombia was used. Our results indicated that there are significant differences based on the guests´ nationality regarding the effects of value co-creation and image on trust, image on satisfaction, and satisfaction on loyalty. These findings will allow hotel management to have a better understanding of tourists when designing their corporate strategies.


Introduction
In recent years, problems related to environmental degradation, and its contribution to global warming, have become a major concern, both locally, nationally and globally (Singhal et al., 2018).In this sense, legislation related to the implementation of environmental regulations and the increase in the number of environmentally responsible consumers are two of the main factors that have increased awareness of the environmental issues faced by companies in general, and, in particular, those operating in the tourism sector (Singhal et al., 2018).In this respect, an ever-growing number of hotels have implemented several ecological practices in their establishments to respect the environment and conserve their valuable resources for future generations (Kularatne et al., 2019).
Notwithstanding, empirical evidence on proenvironmental consumer behaviour is mixed and requires further research (Correia Loureiro et al., 2021).On the one hand, guest' nationality.In this way, we intend to shed light on the relevant relations between the variables retained in the analysis in two different countries: on the one hand, Spain, a European consolidated tourist destination and the second most popular destination worldwide in number of visitors (UNWTO, 2019), and, on the other hand, Colombia, a South American country that has been experiencing a notable tourist boom, with a 10.4% increase in the number of tourists in 2018 compared to the previous year (CITUR (Centro de Informaci on Tur ıstica de Colombia), 2019).An additional contribution of this research is to propose a model with multidimensional/ higher-order constructs ('green' practices and value co-creation).Finally, our research offers implications for hotels that are located in different countries, helping them to improve their relationship with their guests, since they have different behaviour depending on their nationality.Therefore, the results promote the idea that hotel managers must be sensitive to cultural differences and carry out different actions depending on the country where their hotel is located.

Theoretical background and research hypotheses
2.1.'Green' practices Currently, sustainability, a term that gained popularity in the eighties (Jones et al., 2016), focuses attention on a set of environmental principles that must be adopted in all areas and economic sectors to achieve long-term sustainable development (Font & McCabe, 2017).In this line, companies around the world try to modify their production processes to avoid environmental damage and the hospitality industry is no stranger to this process (Han & Yoon, 2015).
In recent years, the hotel chains have increased their efforts to address environmental problems by working to mitigate environmental damage and to adopt a more environmentally friendly approach (Han & Yoon, 2015).In this sense, the implementation of environmental measures has become a new trend in the hotel industry (Yi et al., 2018), since it not only reduces environmental degradation but also increases financial benefits due to lower costs, gain competitive advantages in the market, and improves corporate image (Kularatne et al., 2019).
In their study, Rahman et al. (2012, p. 721) consider that the term 'green' means 'environmentally friendly, that is, doing business in a way that reduces waste, conserves energy, and generally promotes environmental health'.Along these lines, some studies classify the 'green' practices that have currently been implemented in most hotels under the following functional/operational areas: a) energy efficiency; b) water conservation; c) recycling; d) reduction of waste; and, e) staff and guest education (Balaji et al., 2019;Kasimu et al., 2012).

Value co-creation
The concept of value, which has been widely analysed in literature since the nineties, is becoming increasingly important for companies and is considered as a significant factor when looking for maintaining a competitive advantage (Prebensen & Xie, 2017).Furthermore, a certain degree of homogenisation of the products offered in the market, including the hotel industry, has increased the degree of rivalry between companies (Prebensen & Xie, 2017).Consequently, 'creating superior value for customers is or should be the core objective of any hospitality firm ' (Gonz alez-Mansilla et al., 2019, p. 51).
Based on this, there is another concept that has become a significant aspect in the study of consumer behaviour: value co-creation, which refers to 'a process of active interaction between the firm and its customers in order to create value' (Gonz alez-Mansilla et al., 2019, p. 52).In order to increase the degree of customisation of their experience and co-create value, consumers must integrate their own resources, such as knowledge, skills and even time (Zhang et al., 2015), thus becoming an active participant in the value co-creation through direct interaction with the service provider (Binkhorst, 2008).
In the hotel context, value co-creation has an important role because exists before, during and after the trip guest stayed at the hotel and interacts with front-line employees and other guests (Assiouras et al., 2019).Several authors have proposed different scales to measure value co-creation from the consumer's standpoint, considering it as a multidimensional construct (Busser & Shulga, 2018;Yi & Gong, 2013).One of the proposals for measuring co-creation of value that has raised special attention in the literature is that of Yi and Gong (2013).These authors find support to previous research as far as they maintain that value co-creation is a third-order construct composed of two second-order dimensions: customer participation behaviour and customer citizenship behaviour.In a hotel context, customer participation behaviour is a behaviour that is expected from the guest, whereas customer citizenship behaviour is an additional behaviour that implies actions directed at the hotel and others guests (Roy et al., 2020).Due to the fact that this multidimensional approach enables a detailed analysis of the main aspects involved in value co-creation, this is the approach adopted in the present study.

Image
References to image are abundant in the literature on consumer behaviour (Han & Ryu, 2012), highlighting its importance of study when determining future behaviours from a relational point of view (Ryu et al., 2008).The image of a hotel is related to various attributes such as the type of hotel, brand, the architecture of the buildings, quality of the facilities, and the variety of services offered (Lahap et al., 2016).For this reason, many hotels are adopting new ecological marketing strategies not only to meet the environmental demands of their guests but also to improve their corporate image (Mart ınez, 2015).
In their study, Palacios-Florencio et al. (2016, p. 1461) conclude that environmental measures represent 'one of the main practices implemented to strengthen corporate image'.In this sense, the 'green' practices implemented by hotels, in addition to being an important factor in differentiating them from their competitors (Scholz et al., 2022), generate affective responses from their guests that will strengthen their corporate image (Cheng et al., 2022;Gonz alez-Rodr ıguez et al., 2020;Kasimu et al., 2012; Mart ınez Garc ıa de Leaniz et al., 2018;Palacios-Florencio et al., 2016, 2018).Accordingly, we state the first hypothesis as follows: H1: 'Green' practices positively influence the image of the hotel.

Trust
Trust, one of the defining characteristics of any social relationship, exists 'when one party has confidence in an exchange partner's reliability and integrity' (Morgan & Hunt, 1994, p. 23).In a services setting, trust becomes even more important, given that services cannot be valued before consumption (Berry, 1995).For this reason, in the context of 'green' marketing, trust also plays a fundamental role (Balaji et al., 2019), since, when buying environmentally responsible products or services, consumers use trust to reduce the degree of uncertainty and risk in making their purchases (Ponnapureddy et al., 2017).
In the context of environmentally responsible hotels, Balaji et al. (2019, p. 3292) define trust as 'the belief that green hotels will perform in a manner consistent with their environmental values' being 'a prerequisite for inducing positive responses towards green hotels'.In this sense, several authors have shown that the 'green' practices implemented by hotels reflect their environmental values, which helps to enhance guest confidence (Balaji et al., 2019;Palacios-Florencio et al., 2016, 2018).Based on this, we state the following hypothesis: H2: 'Green' practices positively influence the trust that guests place in the hotel.
In literature, it has been emphasised that through active participation, consumers have the opportunity to provide their opinions on products and services, which also serves to increase trust in suppliers (Fledderus, 2015).In this sense, the interaction between the customer and the company through the process of value co-creation improves the relationship between the two and reduces the level of risk perceived by the customer, which will have a positive effect on their trust in the service provider (Wu & Cheng, 2020).Accordingly, the following hypothesis is proposed: H3: Value co-creation positively influences the trust that guests place in the hotel.
Furthermore, literature has shown that a firm with a favourable corporate image is more likely to maintain its current customer base, thus increasing their level of trust (Chen, 2010).Regarding the hotel industry, there are contributions to the literature that positively relate the image of the hotel held by the guest and the level of trust (Assaker et al., 2020;Mart ınez, 2015;Palacios-Florencio et al., 2016;Wang et al., 2018).In the context of environmentally responsible hotels, and based on the above, we state the following hypothesis: H4: Image positively influences the trust that guests place in the hotel.

Satisfaction
In recent years, many researchers have focused on a more in-depth study of the variables that, in one way or another, permit evaluation of the level of service provided by an organisation; of particular note is the study on satisfaction (Torres et al., 2014).Different approaches have been taken in order to define the concept of satisfaction, on the one hand: cognitive, affective, or mixed (Torres et al., 2014), and, on the other hand, approaches that indicate its specific or cumulative nature (Moliner-Vel azquez & Berenguer-Contr ı, 2011).In a study on 'green ' hotels, Mart ınez (2015, p. 902) proposes 'green' satisfaction as 'a pleasure level of consumption-related fulfillment to satisfy customers' environmental desires, sustainable expectations and green needs'.In this sense, for the management of an ecological hotel it is important to recognise and anticipate the needs of the guests in order to achieve their satisfaction (Wu et al., 2016).
In literature, previous studies have analysed the relationship between company image and customer satisfaction, obtaining different results with respect to this relationship.Therefore, whilst some works consider that the image of a company and the satisfaction of its customers are closely related to each other, image constituting an important factor, not only to achieve customer satisfaction but also to increase the degree of it (Mart ınez, 2015; Wang et al., 2018;Wu et al., 2016), other studies, such as Assaker et al. (2020), demonstrate that image does not exert a relevant influence on consumer satisfaction.In this work, the authors propose the following hypothesis: H5: Image positively influences hotel guest satisfaction.
Moreover, previous studies argue that trust, considered as an essential factor in maintaining long-term business-to-consumer relationships (Balaji et al., 2019), positively influences consumer satisfaction (Jin et al., 2016;Mart ınez, 2015).For example, in their study in the luxury restaurant sector, Jin et al. (2016) point out that trust precedes satisfaction, arguing that if a customer does not trust the service provider because of experience, they will probably not be satisfied with that service provider.In the 'green' hotel context, Mart ınez (2015) also demonstrate the existence of a positive relationship between guest s trust and satisfaction.Based on this, we state the following hypothesis: H6: Trust positively influences the satisfaction of hotel guests.

Loyalty
Customer loyalty is another variable that has sparked a lot of interest in literature, due to its importance in the sustainability of a company (Palacios-Florencio et al., 2018).The authors point out that loyalty is strongly related to company results, since loyal consumers are less motivated to change their brand, likely to spend more with the company, and spread favourable comments about the brand in the market, thus attracting new consumers (Palacios-Florencio et al., 2018).
Studies carried out in the hotel context indicate that guest satisfaction is a determining factor in increasing their degree of loyalty to the hotel (Moise et al., 2018(Moise et al., , 2021;;Wu et al., 2016).In the 'green' hotel context, previous studies have supported that guests satisfaction positively affects their loyalty (Assaker, 2020;Wang et al., 2018).Notwithstanding, there is also empirical evidence arguing that even if guests are satisfied with the service delivered, they may not revisit the hotel (Worsfold et al., 2016).
All in all, in this work we consider that if guests are satisfied with their stay at the hotel they will stay there again on subsequent trips, considering it as their first option when choosing an establishment to stay and, based on this, we propose the following hypothesis: H7: Satisfaction positively influences guests' loyalty to the hotel.

The moderating role of nationality
In literature, the number of papers that have analysed the influence of culture on consumer decision making has increased in the last decade due to the globalisation of markets, which requires companies to operate in different countries (Mattila, 2019).In order to explain how culture determines individual behaviour, the early work of Bourdieu (1977) coined the Theory of Practice to justify the bonds between Culture Dispositions and Practices.According to this theory, culture gathers several components, namely: beliefs, values, attitudes and behaviours well-established and widelyshared within a community.From the Theory of Practice it may be inferred that guests from different cultural backgrounds judge the same experience with the hotel in significantly different ways.
In this sense, various authors who carried out cross-cultural studies opt for considering nationality as an important factor in evaluating cultural differences and in understanding those characteristics shared by members in the context of tourism (Mattila, 2019).In an in-depth review of the literature, Li (2014) points out that, of the 91 articles analysed, 49 used nationality as a basis for the analysis of intercultural tourism behaviour.With respect to the thematic areas covered, evidence of the influence of nationality has been found in: a) 'green' practices (Berezan et al., 2013); b) image (Lee & Lee, 2009); c) trust (Jin et al., 2008); d) satisfaction (Berezan et al., 2013;Zhang et al., 2015); and, e) loyalty (Li, 2014).
On the other hand, Akaka et al. (2013) propose extending the concept of value to the cultural setting, highlighting that value co-creation is influenced by practices at various levels of interaction that differ between cultures.Based on a study conducted on clients of financial institutions in Spain and the United Kingdom, Grott et al. (2019) conclude that the process of value co-creation can be affected by the consumer's cultural environment, and companies can be more effective if they adapt their strategies to fit in with the client's culture.
For our empirical study, the selection of countries (Spain and Colombia) was based on two criteria.First, from a development point of view, Spain represents a mature global tourist market and Colombia an emerging tourist market.Second, there are many cultural differences between the two countries, differences that correspond to their opposite classification in the six Hofstede dimensions.In this sense, according to Hofstede Insights (2020), the Spanish society is characterised by higher individualism, lower masculinity, and low power distance, as opposed to the Colombian society, which is rather collectivistic, masculine, and scoring high in power distance.
In response to the call of authors such as Mattila (2019) and Grott et al. (2019), who point out that additional empirical research is required to explore cultural differences, we propose the following hypotheses to explore whether the nationality of guests plays the role of moderating variable in the relationships contemplated in our model: H8: Compared to Colombian guests, for Spanish guests: 1) 'green' practices have a greater influence on image (H8a) and trust (H8b); 2) value co-creation has a greater influence on trust (H8c); 3) image has a greater influence on trust (H8d) and satisfaction (H8e); 4) trust has a greater influence on satisfaction (H8f); and, 5) satisfaction has a greater influence on loyalty (H8g).
The proposed model, which contemplates the aforementioned hypotheses, is shown in Figure 1.

Measurement development
To measure 'green' practices, nineteen items extracted from Kasimu et al. (2012) were used, grouped into four dimensions: energy management, waste management, water conservation, and general support to sustainable tourism practices.The scale proposed by Yi and Gong (2013) has been adapted to assess the degree of co-creation of the guests, as it is a third-order multidimensional construct, consisting of 29 items grouped into two second-order dimensions, which, in turn, each includes four firstorder factors.The items related to hotel image have been extracted from Palacios-Florencio et al. (2016), while the five items referring to guest trust have been extracted and adapted from Chen (2010).Finally, guest satisfaction was measured through three items proposed by Mart ınez (2015) and for customer loyalty, three items were used based on the work of Kim et al. (2008).All these items have been evaluated using a 7-point Likert scale.
Once proposed the scales for measuring the variables of interest, firstly, a questionnaire was drafted in English, and then translated into Spanish.Secondly, the questionnaire was translated back into English to ensure that there were no inconsistencies between the two versions of the questionnaire.Subsequently, a pilot survey was carried out on 10 guests to check if the respondents understood the items, after which the final version of the questionnaire was prepared.

Data collection
To test the proposed hypotheses, a quantitative study was performed.The members of the research team conducted face-to-face interviews with Spanish and Colombian tourists who stayed in three-and four-star hotels in the cities of Valencia (Spain) and Bogot a (Colombia), respectively.These hotels belong to hotel chains that embody an innovative management style from an environmental point of view, as reflected in their sustainability reports and have 'green' certifications, such as Green Key, Green Leaders or Green Globe.In addition, these hotel chains are located in the two selected cities.Once the permission from the hotel managers has been given, the data were collected through personal interviews carried out in the hotel lobbies in July and August 2018 in Valencia, and between September and November 2018 in Bogot a, resulting in a final sample of 611 valid questionnaires, 309 in Valencia and 302 in Bogot a.

Sample characteristics
Regarding the profile of the Spanish guests, the majority are men (54.4%) and more than half are between 24 and 58 years old (65.1%).In relation to the level of studies, 63.1% have university degrees and post-graduate qualifications.Most people interviewed stated that they were employees (52.1%).79.6% of respondents stated that they were staying at the hotel for leisure purposes.Regarding the profile of the Colombian guests, more than half are men (58.6%) and the majority are between 24 and 58 years old (68.6%).Furthermore, the majority hold some form of technical or technological qualification (40.7%) and university degree (46.0%) and are employed (58.3%) or self-employed (27.2%).More than half of the guests (57.9%) were staying at the hotel for business.

Results
The analysis of the results obtained was carried out in two phases.First, to analyse the possible dimensions of the 'green' practices and value co-creation variables, an Exploratory Factor Analysis was carried out using the SPSS software.Second, the validation of the measurement instrument through a Confirmatory Factor Analysis and the estimation of the structural model were carried out by means of Partial Least Squares (PLS), using the Smart PLS 3 software.

Exploratory Factor Analysis
An Exploratory Factor Analysis with VARIMAX rotation was performed in order to determine, on the one hand, if the dimensions used in this work to measure 'green' practices and value co-creation are the same as those used in previous studies and, on the other hand, if the items are grouped into factors or dimensions in the same way as previously proposed.The results (KMO ¼ 0.941 for the 'green' practices variable and KMO ¼ 0.898 for value co-creation, and for Bartlett's test of sphericity a pvalue of less than 0.01, for the two constructs) confirm that the data matrix is valid to continue the factor analysis process.Then, after analysing the matrix of rotated coefficients, it was decided to eliminate two items in the case of 'green' practices and two items for value co-creation, since their weightings were less than 0.5 (Nunnally & Bernstein, 1994).As a result, 'green' practices are made up of four first-order dimensions, specifically, energy management, waste management, water conservation and general support to sustainable tourism practices.In turn, the value co-creation variable, as in previous studies, is divided into eight first-order dimensions: information seeking, information sharing, responsible behaviour, personal interaction, feedback, advocacy, helping and tolerance.

Confirmatory Factor Analysis
Following the Exploratory Factor Analysis, a Confirmatory Factor Analysis was carried out.First, with respect to the first-order reflective constructs, the internal consistency criterion was adopted to analyse their reliability, using Cronbach's alpha and the Composite Reliability (CR).In addition, the average variance extracted (AVE) and the loadings of the indicators were analysed to assess the convergent validity.As shown in Table 1, all items have values greater than 0.707 and statistically significant (p < 0.01), which indicates adequate convergent validity.
The discriminant validity was confirmed as the square roots of the AVE of each construct are greater than the correlations with the other constructs, according to the Fornell and Larcker (1981) criterion and the values for the heterotrait-monotrait (HTMT) ratio are less than 0.9 (Henseler et al., 2015).
The formative variables were evaluated, on the one hand, by evaluating the existence of possible multicollinearity, through the variance inflation factor (VIF) and, on the other hand, by evaluating the magnitude of the weights and their significance.Based on the results obtained, it was decided to eliminate four of the items of the variable image since they did not meet the aforementioned criteria, leaving the variable defined by three items.According to the four types of multidimensional models proposed by Jarvis et al. (2003), we consider 'green' practices and value co-creation as reflective-formative and reflective-formative-formative variables, respectively.Table 2 presents the results of the measurement model of formative constructs.

Global structural model
Once the measurement instrument has been validated, the structural model is estimated by analysing the standardised path coefficients (b) obtained by using the bootstrapping method (Henseler, 2017) on 5000 subsamples.In addition, the evaluation of the model is carried out by means of the variance of the dependent latent variables explained by the constructs that predict them (R 2 ) and the predictive relevance (Q 2 through blindfolding).From the results obtained, and as shown in be noted that all the relationships set out in our model have been supported at least at the 0.001 significance level.

The moderating role of customer nationality
Additionally, according to the hypotheses raised, we hope to find significant differences in the relationships between constructs based on guest nationality.For this, a multigroup analysis (MGA) is carried out by dividing the database into two subgroups: Spanish and Colombian guests.Previously, we applied the MICOM (Measurement Invariance of Composite Models), a three-step procedure that allows us to analyse the invariance of composite models (Henseler et al., 2016).As can be seen in Table 4, there is a complete measurement invariance (for 'green' practices) as well as a partial measurement invariance (for co-creation value, image, satisfaction and loyalty), which is a necessary requirement to carry out a multigroup analysis (Henseler et al., 2016).
Table 5 displays the results of the MGA and the permutation test, the two methods used to demonstrate the significance of the difference between the path coefficients obtained in the multigroup analysis.According to the results obtained, there are clearly significant differences regarding the effects of value co-creation and image on  trust, image on satisfaction, and satisfaction on loyalty.In contrast, there is no evidence that nationality has a significant moderating role in the relationships between 'green' practices and image, 'green' practices and trust, and trust and satisfaction.

Conclusions and discussions
Based on the tourists' increasing concern for the environment and their greater desire to get involved and collaborate with companies in the development of their experiences, this work, through the presentation and empirical analysis of a theoretical model, analyses how 'green' practices and value co-creation contribute, along with other variables such as image and trust, to generate guest satisfaction and loyalty in the context of 'green' hotels.Our model integrated a multidimensional operationalization for the two constructs: 'green' practices and value co-creation based on the previous studies.
Results of PLS-SEM analysis confirm positive and significant relationships between the constructs proposed in the model, thus supporting Hypotheses 1 to 7.There are also significant differences based on the guests nationality regarding the effects of value co-creation and image on trust, image on satisfaction, and satisfaction on loyalty, in support of Hypotheses H8c, H8d, H8e and H8g.In contrast, we do not find significant differences either in the influence of 'green' practices on hotel image or trust; thus, even if sensitiveness to sustainability may differ between Spanish and Colombian guests, it does not seem to determine the strength of the relations between these variables.Similarly, the relation between guest trust and satisfaction does not seem to be moderated by the nationality of the customer.In this sense, several theoretical and managerial implications can be derived from our results.

Theoretical implications
First, the direct and significant effects that 'green' practices have on image and on trust were demonstrated in the evaluation of the causal model, which means that 'green' practices are shown as a key variable to ensure the image of the hotel company and increase guest trust in it.Second, since there is a relationship between value co-creation and guest trust, we can point out that, through the process of value cocreation, guests perceive their collaboration with the hotel in the creation and development of their own experience as an important action, which increases their degree of trust in the hotel.The aforementioned evidence is aligned with previous research reporting positive links between guests' affective responses and corporate image and trust (Palacios-Florencio et al., 2016, 2018).
Third, image has a positive and significant effect on tourist trust, on the one hand, and on guest satisfaction, on the other hand.On this basis, in the same line as previous research (e.g.(Mart ınez, 2015;Wang et al., 2018), we can assume that a favourable green image of the hotel enhanced through green practices positively contributes to the overall image and the confidence of its guests, thereby reducing their level of risk and uncertainty when selecting the hotel and increases customer satisfaction, thus achieving an advantage over its competitors.
Fourth, our study has been able to confirm the positive relationships between trust and satisfaction and satisfaction and loyalty, in support of the main stream in the literature.These results indicate that the increase in guest trust will have a positive influence on their own judgement about the hotel, which will create a positive attitude towards the company, increasing their degree of satisfaction with it.Furthermore, guest satisfaction can help increase their degree of loyalty towards 'green' hotels, with the implementation of environmental measures and the possibility of participating in the value co-creation process constituting two key strategic tools given their essential role in building not only image, guest trust and satisfaction, but also customer loyalty.
Finally, the present work proposed a comparative study between Spanish and Colombian guests to gain an understanding of consumer behaviour in these two cultures.First, the results of the empirical analysis have determined that, although the environmental measures developed by hotels significantly influence the image and satisfaction of both Spanish and Colombian guests, there are no significant differences between the two subgroups.In this sense, we could conclude that, in contrast to the Theory of Practice (Bourdieu, 1977), nowadays guests, regardless of the country of origin, are more aware of environmental problems and, consequently, establish and maintain more lasting relationships with companies that are environmentally responsible; 'green' practices are a factor of great importance in the construction of both the image that guests have in relation to the hotel, and the trust that they place in it.Furthermore, our analysis also shows that trust represents an essential variable in increasing guest satisfaction, regardless of their nationality.
Second, the analysis of the results indicates that nationality exerts a moderating effect on the following relationships: value co-creation -trust, image -satisfaction and satisfaction -loyalty, all of which are more important for Spanish tourists.A possible explanation for the results obtained would be that, for guests from countries with individualistic cultures and low masculinity, such as Spaniards, the initiation of new behaviours, value co-creation for example, seems to be more valued and, moreover, they tend to be more satisfied and, as a consequence, to be more loyal than guests from national cultures with high levels of masculinity and collectivism, as is the case of Colombia.
Finally, although in both groups the results indicate the existence of a positive and significant relationship between image and satisfaction, in the Colombian subsample, however, the effect is significantly greater than in the Spanish sample.Therefore, it is concluded that tourists from cultures with a high degree of collectivism such as Colombia are more likely to build trust, since in this type of culture strong interpersonal ties prevail and individuals tend to judge others to be similar to them (Jin et al., 2008).

Managerial implications
Based on the above discussions, in this section we present some implications that we consider will allow hotel managers to have a better understanding, on the one hand, of the perceptions of guests about the sustainable practices developed by these companies and, on the other hand, the importance of the possibility for tourists to participate, together with the hotel, in the creation of their experience at the hotel.
First, in relation to 'green' practices, if we analyse the items proposed in this work in order to measure them, we observe that some aspects, such as providing refillable shampoo/soap dispensers and using recycling bins in rooms and common areas, have been highly valued by Colombian guests.In this sense, Spanish hotels could, for example, consider using products such as shampoo and soap made by well-known brands to encourage guests to use and accept this type of product in refillable dispensers.On the other hand, since practices such as the use of presence sensors/entry cards in rooms or the use of energy efficient equipment and products, have been highly rated by Spanish guests, the managers of Colombian hotels should intensify the information efforts through in-room brochures, in the lobby and the restaurant of the hotel on the positive environmental impact stemming from the implementation of these practices.
Based on the results obtained, we consider that environmental measures can be a favourable factor if they are implemented correctly by hotels.For this reason, hotel managers should address all their attention towards their guests and their needs, given that today's consumers are increasingly aware of environmental problems and, therefore, believe that hotels should also be taking action to promote sustainability.In this sense, hoteliers should communicate to guests the benefits obtained after the implementation of 'green' measures in their establishments, with objective indicators, such as, for example, the reduction of the carbon footprint or the decrease in water and energy consumption, highlighting its positive impact on society in general and on the environment in particular.In this way, they can show consumers that these practices are not just 'greenwashing' tactics, but actually contribute to the development of sustainable tourism.
In addition, positioning itself as an environmentally-friendly establishment by incorporating 'green' practices into its operations, helps a hotel not only differentiate itself from its competitors, but also identify and attract new guest segments based on their needs.This identification allows hotel managers to use more specific marketing strategies, such as asking guests for information about their willingness to collaborate on 'green' practices prior to check-in and, consequently, customise, as much as possible, the environmental measures implemented in each room.Notwithstanding, due to the cost-revenue imbalance caused by the COVID-19 virus outbreak and the subsequent reduction in tourism numbers (Alexakis et al., 2021), the key motive for adopting green initiatives may lay in cost reduction and not harvesting green tourist market.This might represent an opportunity for developers of environmental-friendly solutions that contribute to significant savings in hotel water and energy consumption.
Secondly, due to the increased use of social media nowadays, consumers freely communicate with each other and are very well informed, having the opportunity to process information and express their opinions wherever and whenever they want.The active role of the tourist in the process of value co-creation, before, during and after their hotel experience can lead to better results, since the hotel has the possibility of offering services adapted to the customers' needs, thus gaining an edge over competitors.
Furthermore, the involvement of guests in the process of value co-creation generates the possibility of communication through direct interaction between them and hotel employees.This communication constitutes an important exchange of information for the hotel, since customers can inform the hotel about their needs, their opinions, as well as any suggestions they may have.In addition, guests expect and want hoteliers to take all this information into account, because otherwise they may express negative opinions about the establishment through forums, social media or even at the hotel.Therefore, managers must recognise the value of all the information provided by their guests to analyse their characteristics through honest interaction with them in order to increase their levels of trust and guarantee their satisfaction and loyalty.
It should be noted that hotel managers must take into consideration the cultural differences that arise when guests are actively involved in the process of value cocreation by guests.In this sense, according to the results of our empirical study, Spanish guests differed from Colombian guests with respect to various aspects of some of the dimensions of the value co-creation construct, such as: information search, information exchange, responsible behaviour, feedback, willingness to help or tolerance.For this reason, Colombian hotel managers must identify and encourage those clients who co-create their experiences, for example through a platform that adapts to each client depending on the level of value co-creation that they wish to carry out voluntarily.

Limitations and future research
This work is subject to a series of limitations that need to be considered to qualify the results and the conclusions derived from them, which are configured as opportunities for future research.First, due to the small number and geographical limitation of the hotels investigated, future research needs to cover a greater number of establishments, including those located in other geographical areas of the two countries studied, or in other countries.Second, given that in our model not all possible relationships between the variables used are exhausted, we propose that future works validate the direct impacts that may exist between them.Third, the proposed model could be reconsidered for other types of accommodation companies, such as hostels or campsites or in other areas related to the tourism sector, such as restaurants, travel agencies or airlines.Fourth, we are aware of the fact that the present research was completed before the COVID-19 virus outbreak.Further research should verify if these findings are still valid after the pandemic, or guest perceptions and behaviour has experienced a substantial change.Finally, as an opportunity to advance research in the environmentally responsible tourist environment, other constructs could be added to the model, such as environmental knowledge and commitment of tourists, or their previous experience with 'green' hotels.

Disclosure statement
No potential conflict of interest was reported by the authors.

Table 3 ,
it should

Table 1 .
Measurement model evaluation results.

Table 2 .
Measurement model of formative constructs.

Table 3 .
Structural model results.

Table 4 .
Results of invariance measurement testing using permutation.