Stocktake Sale on now: wide range of books at up to 70% off!
Register      Login
Animal Production Science Animal Production Science Society
Food, fibre and pharmaceuticals from animals
RESEARCH ARTICLE

The role of black soldier fly larval protein and fat in companion-animal nutrition: challenges and opportunities from an industry perspective

Anna Sutton https://orcid.org/0000-0001-9290-299X A * and Nick D. Costa https://orcid.org/0009-0009-4745-1347 B
+ Author Affiliations
- Author Affiliations

A Sustainable Pet Food Ingredients, Geelong, Vic. 3228, Australia.

B School of Agricultural Sciences, Murdoch University, Murdoch, WA 6150, Australia.

* Correspondence to: anna.sutton@spfi.com.au

Handling Editor: David Masters

Animal Production Science 63(18) 1949-1957 https://doi.org/10.1071/AN23080
Submitted: 6 March 2023  Accepted: 4 June 2023  Published: 30 June 2023

© 2023 The Author(s) (or their employer(s)). Published by CSIRO Publishing

Abstract

The pet-food industry is a significant and rapidly growing market, with global sales estimated at over US$100 billion in 2020. The market size for pet food was estimated at 22.9 million tonnes in 2020. The number of cats and dogs being fed commercial pet food is also on the rise, with an estimated 62% of cats and 68% of dogs being fed commercial pet food in the United States alone with an estimated value of A$2.3 billion in 2020. This represents a growth of 3.3% from the previous year, and the market is expected to continue growing with a forecast compound annual growth rate (CAGR) of 3.4% from 2021 to 2025. The demand for high-quality, specialised pet-food products has led to consistent year-on-year growth in the industry. With this, the increasing demand for commercial pet food on a global scale comes with growing sustainability challenges that must be addressed. In this paper, we will examine some of the opportunities for the use of black soldier fly larvae (BSFL) meal and oil in pet-food formulations to reduce the environmental impact of pet food and pet ownership and deliver nutritional and functional benefits to our pets.

Keywords: amino acids, antimicrobial, black soldier fly, cat, dog, environment, meal, minerals, oil, protein.

References

AAFCO (2022) Nutritional requirements for dogs and cats. AAFCO.

Alexander P, Brown C, Arneth A, Dias C, Finnigan J, Moran D, Rounsevell MDA (2017) Could consumption of insects, cultured meat or imitation meat reduce global agricultural land use? Global Food Security 15, 22-32.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Alexander P, Berri A, Moran D, Reay D, Rounsevell MDA (2020) The global environmental paw print of pet food. Global Environmental Change 65, 102153.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Almeida C, Rijo P, Rosado C (2020) Bioactive compounds from Hermetia illucens larvae as natural ingredients for cosmetic application. Biomolecules 10, 976.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Almeida C, Murta D, Nunes R, Baby AR, Fernandes A, Barros L, Rijo P, Rosado C (2022) Characterization of lipid extracts from the Hermetia illucens larvae and their bioactivities for potential use as pharmaceutical and cosmetic ingredients. Heliyon 8, e09455.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Bao KJ, Schreer G (2016) Pets and happiness: examining the association between pet ownership and wellbeing. Anthrozoös 29, 283-296.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Batish I, Brits D, Valencia P, Miyai C, Rafeeq S, Xu Y, Galanopoulos M, Sismour E, Ovissipour R (2020) Effects of enzymatic hydrolysis on the functional properties, antioxidant activity and protein structure of black soldier fly (Hermetia illucens) protein. Insects 11, 876.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Berk BA, Packer RMA, Law TH, Wessmann A, Bathen-Nöthen A, Jokinen TS, Knebel A, Tipold A, Pelligand L, Volk HA (2019) A double-blinded randomised dietary supplement crossover trial design to investigate the short-term influence of medium chain fatty acid (MCT) supplement on canine idiopathic epilepsy: study protocol. BMC Veterinary Research 15, 181.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Berk BA, Packer RMA, Law TH, Wessmann A, Bathen-Nöthen A, Jokinen TS, Knebel A, Tipold A, Pelligand L, Volk HA (2021) Medium-chain triglycerides dietary supplement improves cognitive abilities in canine epilepsy. Epilepsy & Behavior 114, 107608.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Berk BA, Packer RM-A, Fritz J, Volk HA (2022) Oral palatability testing of a medium-chain triglyceride oil supplement (MCT) in a cohort of healthy dogs in a non-clinical setting. Animals 12, 1639.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Bermingham EN, Thomas DG, Morris PJ, Hawthorne AJ (2010) Energy requirements of adult cats. British Journal of Nutrition 103, 1083-1093.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Bermingham EN, Weidgraaf K, Hekman M, Roy NC, Tavendale MH, Thomas DG (2013) Seasonal and age effects on energy requirements in domestic short-hair cats (Felis catus) in a temperate environment. Journal of Animal Physiology and Animal Nutrition 97, 522-530.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Bermingham EN, Thomas DG, Cave NJ, Morris PJ, Butterwick RF, German AJ (2014) Energy requirements of adult dogs: a meta-analysis. PLoS ONE 9, e109681.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Biasato I, Renna M, Gai F, Dabbou S, Meneguz M, Perona G, Martinez S, Lajusticia ACB, Bergagna S, Sardi L, Capucchio MT, Bressan E, Dama A, Schiavone A, Gasco L (2019) Partially defatted black soldier fly larva meal inclusion in piglet diets: effects on the growth performance, nutrient digestibility, blood profile, gut morphology and histological features. Journal of Animal Science and Biotechnology 10, 12.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Borrelli L, Coretti L, Dipineto L, Bovera F, Menna F, Chiariotti L, Nizza A, Lembo F, Fioretti A (2017) Insect-based diet, a promising nutritional source, modulates gut microbiota composition and SCFAs production in laying hens. Scientific Reports 7, 16269.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Bosch G, Vervoort JJM, Hendriks WH (2016) In vitro digestibility and fermentability of selected insects for dog foods. Animal Feed Science and Technology 221, 174-184.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Calvez J, Weber M, Ecochard C, Kleim L, Flanagan J, Biourge V, German AJ (2019) Metabolisable energy content in canine and feline foods is best predicted by the NRC2006 equation. PLoS ONE 14, e0223099.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

DiGiacomo K, Akit H, Leury BJ (2019) Insects: a novel animal-feed protein source for the Australian market. Animal Production Science 59, 2037-2045.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Divol G, Priymenko N (2017) A new model for evaluating maintenance energy requirements in dogs: allometric equation from 319 pet dogs. Journal of Nutritional Science 6, E53.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Ewald N, Vidakovic A, Langeland M, Kiessling A, Sampels S, Lalander C (2020) Fatty acid composition of black soldier fly larvae (Hermetia illucens) – possibilities and limitations for modification through diet. Waste Management 102, 40-47.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Freel TA, McComb A, Koutsos EA (2021) Digestibility and safety of dry black soldier fly larvae meal and black soldier fly larvae oil in dogs. Journal of Animal Science 99, skab047.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Georgescu B, Boaru AM, Muntean L, Sima N, Struți DI, Păpuc TA, Georgescu C (2022) Modulating the fatty acid profiles of Hermetia illucens larvae fats by dietary enrichment with different oilseeds: a sustainable way for future use in feed and food. Insects 13, 801.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Harlystiarini H, Mutia R, Wibawan IWT, Astuti DA (2019) In vitro antibacterial activity of black soldier fly (Hermetia illucens) larva extracts against gram-negative bacteria. Buletin Peternakan 43, 125-129.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Hill RC, Choate CJ, Scott KC, Molenberghs G (2009) Comparison of the guaranteed analysis with the measured nutrient composition of commercial pet foods. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association 234, 347-351.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Hurtado-Ribeira R, Hernández DM, Villanueva-Bermejo D, García-Risco MR, Hernández MD, Vázquez L, Fornari T, Martin D (2023) The interaction of slaughtering, drying, and defatting methods differently affects oxidative quality of the fat from black soldier fly (Hermetia illucens) larvae. Insects 14, 368.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Ibañez-Peinado D, Ubeda-Manzanaro M, Martínez A, Rodrigo D (2020) Antimicrobial effect of insect chitosan on Salmonella typhimurium, Escherichia coli O157:H7 and Listeria monocytogenes survival. PLoS ONE 15, e0244153.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Jian S, Zhang L, Ding N, Yang K, Xin Z, Hu M, Zhou Z, Zhao Z, Deng B, Deng J (2022) Effects of black soldier fly larvae as protein or fat sources on apparent nutrient digestibility, fecal microbiota, and metabolic profiles in beagle dogs. Frontiers in Microbiology 13, 1044986.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Khan SH (2018) Recent advances in role of insects as alternative protein source in poultry nutrition. Journal of Applied Animal Research 46, 1144-1157.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Kotob G, Sluczanowski N, Anusha Siddiqui S, Martin Tome N, Dalim M, van der Raad P, Aarts K, Paul A (2022) Potential application of black soldier fly fats in canine and feline diet formulations: a review of literature. Journal of Asia-Pacific Entomology 25, 101994.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Koutsos L, McComb A, Finke M (2019) Insect composition and uses in animal feeding applications: a brief review. Annals of the Entomological Society of America 112, 544-551.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Koutsos E, Modica B, Freel T (2022) Immunomodulatory potential of black soldier fly larvae: applications beyond nutrition in animal feeding programs. Translational Animal Science 6, txac084.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Lee K-S, Yun E-Y, Goo T-W (2020) Antimicrobial activity of an extract of Hermetia illucens larvae immunized with Lactobacillus casei against Salmonella species. Insects 11, 704.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Liland NS, Biancarosa I, Araujo P, Biemans D, Bruckner CG, Waagbø R, Torstensen BE, Lock E-J (2017) Modulation of nutrient composition of black soldier fly (Hermetia illucens) larvae by feeding seaweed-enriched media. PLoS ONE 12, e0183188.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Lu S, Taethaisong N, Meethip W, Surakhunthod J, Sinpru B, Sroichak T, Archa P, Thongpea S, Paengkoum S, Purba RAP, Paengkoum P (2022) Nutritional composition of black soldier fly larvae (Hermetia illucens L.) and its potential uses as alternative protein sources in animal diets: a review. Insects 13, 831.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Meeker DL, Meisinger JL (2015) COMPANION ANIMALS SYMPOSIUM: Rendered ingredients significantly influence sustainability, quality, and safety of pet food. Journal of Animal Science 93(3), 835-847.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

National Research Council (2006) ‘The nutrient requirements of dogs and cats.’ (The National Academies Press: Washington, DC, USA)

Pan Y, Landsberg G, Mougeot I, Kelly S, Xu H, Bhatnagar S, Gardner CL, Milgram NW (2018) Efficacy of a therapeutic diet on dogs with signs of cognitive dysfunction syndrome (CDS): a prospective double blinded placebo controlled clinical study. Frontiers in Nutrition 5, 127.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Park K, Choi J, Nam S, Kim S, Kwak K, Lee S, Nho S (2014) Antioxidant activities of black soldier fly, Hermetia illucens. Journal of Sericultural and Entomological Science 52, 142-146.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Park S-I, Kim J-W, Yoe SM (2015) Purification and characterization of a novel antibacterial peptide from black soldier fly (Hermetia illucens) larvae. Developmental & Comparative Immunology 52, 98-106.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Pedrinelli V, Teixeira FA, Queiroz MR, Brunetto MA (2022) Environmental impact of diets for dogs and cats. Scientific Reports 12, 18510.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Reilly LM, Hu Y, von Schaumburg PC, de Oliveira MRD, He F, Rodriguez-Zas SL, Southey BR, Parsons CM, Utterback P, Lambrakis L, da Costa DV, Bertechini AG, Saad FMOB, de Godoy MRC (2022) Chemical composition of selected insect meals and their effect on apparent total tract digestibility, fecal metabolites, and microbiota of adult cats fed insect-based retorted diets. Journal of Animal Science 100, skac024.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Renna M, Schiavone A, Gai F, Dabbou S, Lussiana C, Malfatto V, Prearo M, Capucchio MT, Biasato I, Biasibetti E, De Marco M, Brugiapaglia A, Zoccarato I, Gasco L (2017) Evaluation of the suitability of a partially defatted black soldier fly (Hermetia illucens L.) larvae meal as ingredient for rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss Walbaum) diets. Journal of Animal Science and Biotechnology 8, 57.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Richards TL, Burron S, Ma DWL, Pearson W, Trevizan L, Minikhiem D, Grant C, Patterson K, Shoveller AK (2023) Effects of dietary camelina, flaxseed, and canola oil supplementation on inflammatory and oxidative markers, transepidermal water loss, and coat quality in healthy adult dogs. Frontiers in Veterinary Science 10, 1085890.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Rumpold BA, Schlüter OK (2013) Nutritional composition and safety aspects of edible insects. Molecular Nutrition & Food Research 57, 802-823.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Schiavone A, Dabbou S, De Marco M, Cullere M, Biasato I, Biasibetti E, Capucchio MT, Bergagna S, Dezzutto D, Meneguz M, Gai F, Dalle Zotte A, Gasco L (2018) Black soldier fly larva fat inclusion in finisher broiler chicken diet as an alternative fat source. Animal 12, 2032-2039.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Spiegel Mvd, Noordam MY, Fels-Klerx HJvd (2013) Safety of novel protein sources (insects, microalgae, seaweed, duckweed, and rapeseed) and legislative aspects for their application in food and feed production. Comprehensive Reviews in Food Science and Food Safety 12, 662-675.
| Google Scholar |

Swanson KS, Carter RA, Yount TP, Aretz J, Buff PR (2013) Nutritional sustainability of pet foods. Advances in Nutrition 4, 141-150.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Tanprasertsuk J, Perry LAM, Tate DE, Honaker RW, Shmalberg J (2021) Apparent total tract nutrient digestibility and metabolizable energy estimation in commercial fresh and extruded dry kibble dog foods. Translational Animal Science 5, txab071.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Tomberlin KAPaM (2018) The status of black soldier fly (Hermetia illucens) as a resource for animal feed and other products. Journal of Applied Entomology 142, 210-219.
| Google Scholar |

Valdés F, Villanueva V, Durán E, Campos F, Avendaño C, Sánchez M, Domingoz-Araujo C, Valenzuela C (2022) Insects as feed for companion and exotic pets: a current trend. Animals 12, 1450.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Wu Q, Patočka J, Kuča K (2018) Insect antimicrobial peptides, a mini review. Toxins 10, 461.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Xia J, Ge C, Yao H (2021) Antimicrobial peptides from black soldier fly (Hermetia illucens) as potential antimicrobial factors representing an alternative to antibiotics in livestock farming. Animals 11, 1937.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |