Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

A sociolinguistic perspective of the effects of packaging in bilingual markets

  • Original Article
  • Published:
Journal of Brand Management Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Packaging is an important element of brand management. For a large swath of the bilingual non-Western world, it is important to consider the effects of English versus local language on packaging evaluation. This study draws on the sociolinguistic theory of the Markedness Model to explain what underpins the effects. First, pretests identified suitable Western and local brands, the expected language for the brands, and attributes associated with English and with Urdu (the local language of Pakistan, this study’s context). A mall-intercept survey (n = 209) found that Urdu (English) was strongly related to sense-of-belonging (modernity). For the Western brand in Urdu packaging, sense-of-belonging mediated the effects of language on packaging evaluation because Urdu was unexpected for the Western brand. Similarly, for the local brand in English (the unexpected language) packaging, modernity had strong mediating effects. Also, consumer ethnocentrism moderated the effects by accentuating the effects of sense-of-belonging and attenuating the effects of modernity. Collectively, the results point to the interactions of country-of-origin (COO) and language on packaging evaluation and call into question COO studies that derive findings from ‘made in country-x’ cues. Cue language may bias the reported COO effects depending on whether the language is expected or unexpected for a particular country.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Fig. 1
Fig. 2

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Ahmed, S.A., and A. D’astous. 2008. Antecedents, moderators and dimensions of country-of-origin evaluations. International Marketing Review 25(1): 75–106.

    Google Scholar 

  • Alcántara-Pilar, J.M., S. Del Barrio-García, E. Crespo-Almendros, and L. Porcu. 2017a. A Review of psycho-Vs. socio-linguistics theories: An application to marketing research. In Advertising and branding: Concepts, methodologies, tools, and applications: Concepts, methodologies, tools, and applications, ed. I.R.M. Association, 1–30. Hershey, PA: IGI Global.

    Google Scholar 

  • Alcántara-Pilar, J.M., S. Del Barrio-García, L. Porcu, and E. Crespo-Almendros. 2017b. Language as a cultural vessel in online servicescapes: Its impact on consumers’ perceived risk, attitudes, and behavioural intentions. Journal of Consumer Behaviour 16(6): 61–75.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ampuero, O., and N. Vila. 2006. Consumer perceptions of product packaging. Journal of Consumer Marketing 23(2): 100–112.

    Google Scholar 

  • Anderson, R.C. 1978. Schema-directed processes in language comprehension. In Cognitive psychology and instruction. Nato conference series, vol. 5, ed. A.M. Lesgold, J.W. Pellegrino, S.D. Fokkema, and R. Glaser. Boston, MA: Springer.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bakar, A., R. Lee, and C. Rungie. 2013. The effects of religious symbols in product packaging on muslim consumer responses. Australasian Marketing Journal 21(3): 198–204.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bannister, J.P., and J.A. Saunders. 1978. UK consumers’ attitudes towards imports: The measurement of national stereotype image. European Journal of Marketing 12(8): 562–570.

    Google Scholar 

  • Baron, R.M., and D.A. Kenny. 1986. The moderator-mediator variable distinction in social psychological research: conceptual, strategic, and statistical considerations. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 51(6): 1173–1182.

    Google Scholar 

  • Blommaert, J. 2010. The sociolinguistics of globalization. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Briand Decré, G., and C. Cloonan. 2019. A touch of gloss: Haptic perception of packaging and consumers’ reactions. Journal of Brand Management 28(1): 117–132.

    Google Scholar 

  • Carnevale, M., D. Luna, and D. Lerman. 2017. Brand linguistics: A theory-driven framework for the study of language in branding. International Journal of Research in Marketing 34(2): 572–591.

    Google Scholar 

  • Chandon, P., J.W. Hutchinson, E.T. Bradlow, and S.H. Young. 2009. Does in-store marketing work? Effects of the number and position of shelf facings on brand attention and evaluation at the point of purchase. Journal of Marketing 73(6): 1–17.

    Google Scholar 

  • Clement, J. 2007. Visual influence on in-store buying decisions: An eye-track experiment on the visual influence of packaging design. Journal of Marketing Management 23(9–10): 917–928.

    Google Scholar 

  • Clement, J., T. Kristensen, and K. Grønhaug. 2013. Understanding consumers’ in-store visual perception: The influence of package design features on visual attention. Journal of Retailing and Consumer Services 20(2): 234–239.

    Google Scholar 

  • Creusen, M.E.H., G. Gemser, and M. Candi. 2018. The influence of experiential augmentation on product evaluation. European Journal of Marketing 52(5/6): 925–945.

    Google Scholar 

  • El Banna, A., N. Papadopoulos, S.A. Murphy, M. Rod, and J.I. Rojas-Méndez. 2018. Ethnic identity, consumer ethnocentrism, and purchase intentions among bi-cultural ethnic consumers: “Divided Loyalties” or “Dual Allegiance”? Journal of Business Research 82: 310–319.

    Google Scholar 

  • Euromonitor. 2018. “Packaged food in Pakistan”, available at: https://www.euromonitor.com/packaged-food-in-pakistan/report. Accessed 3 Oct 2018.

  • Favier, M., F. Celhay, and G. Pantin-Sohier. 2019. Is less more or a bore? Package design simplicity and brand perception: An application to champagne. Journal of Retailing and Consumer Services 46: 11–20.

    Google Scholar 

  • Feng, A., and B. Adamson. 2018. Language policies and sociolinguistic domains in the context of minority groups in China. Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development 39(2): 169–180.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gopinath, M., and M. Glassman. 2008. The Effect of multiple language product descriptions on product evaluations. Psychology & Marketing 25(3): 233–261.

    Google Scholar 

  • Griffith, D.A., A. Chandra, and J.K. Ryans Jr. 2003. Examining the intricacies of promotion standardization: Factors influencing advertising message and packaging. Journal of International Marketing 11(3): 30–47.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hair, J.F.J., W.C. Black, B.J. Babin, and R.E. Anderson. 2010. Multivariate data analysis. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Prentice Hall.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hammond, R.A., and R. Axelrod. 2006. The evolution of ethnocentrism. Journal of Conflict Resolution 50(6): 926–936.

    Google Scholar 

  • Heinberg, M., H.E. Ozkaya, and M. Taube. 2016. A Brand built on sand: Is acquiring a local brand in an emerging market an ill-advised strategy for foreign companies? Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science 44(5): 586–607.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ho, H.-C., C.L. Chiu, D. Jiang, J. Shen, and H. Xu. 2019. Influence of language of packaging labels on consumers’ buying preferences. Journal of Food Products Marketing 25(4): 1–27.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hoijer, H. 1954. The Sapir–Whorf hypothesis. In Language, culture and society: A book of readings, ed. B.G. Blount, 120–131. Cambridge, MA: Winthrop.

    Google Scholar 

  • Homer, P.M. 2006. Relationships among ad-induced affect, beliefs, and attitudes: Another look. Journal of Advertising 35(1): 35–51.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hornikx, J., and F. Van Meurs. 2017. Foreign language display in advertising from a psycholinguistic and sociolinguistic perspective: A review and research agenda. In Advertising and branding: Concepts, methodologies, tools, and applications, ed. I.R.M. Association, 952–972. Hershey, MA: IGI Global.

    Google Scholar 

  • Huang, Y.-A., I. Phau, and C. Lin. 2010. Consumer animosity, economic hardship, and normative influence: How do they affect consumers’ purchase intention? European Journal of Marketing 44(7/8): 909–937.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hunt, E., and F. Agnoli. 1991. The whorfian hypothesis: A cognitive psychology perspective. Psychological Review 98(3): 377–389.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kacen, J.J., J.D. Hess, and D. Walker. 2012. Spontaneous selection: The influence of product and retailing factors on consumer impulse purchases. Journal of Retailing and Consumer Services 19(6): 578–588.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kachru, B.B. 2005. Asian englishes: Beyond the canon. Hong Kong: Hong Kong University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kelly-Holmes, H. 2000. Bier, Parfum, Kaas: Language fetish in European advertising. European Journal of Cultural Studies 3(1): 67–82.

    Google Scholar 

  • Khan, H., and D. Bamber. 2007. Market entry using country-of-origin intelligence in an emerging market. Journal of Small Business and Enterprise Development 14(1): 22–35.

    Google Scholar 

  • Khan, H., R. Lee, and L. Lockshin. 2017a. The effects of packaging localisation of western brands in non-western emerging market. Journal of Product & Brand Management 26: 589–599.

    Google Scholar 

  • Khan, H., L. Lockshin, R. Lee, and A. Corsi. 2017b. When is it necessary to localise product packaging? Journal of Consumer Marketing 34(5): 373–383.

    Google Scholar 

  • Koslow, S., P.N. Shamdasani, and E.E. Touchstone. 1994. Exploring language effects in ethnic advertising: A sociolinguistic perspective. Journal of Consumer Research 20(4): 575–585.

    Google Scholar 

  • Krishna, A., and R. Ahluwalia. 2008. Language choice in advertising to bilinguals: Asymmetric effects for multinationals versus local firms. Journal of Consumer Research 35(4): 692–705.

    Google Scholar 

  • Krishna, A., L. Cian, and N.Z. Aydınoğlu. 2017. Sensory aspects of package design. Journal of Retailing 93(1): 43–54.

    Google Scholar 

  • Laroche, M., F. Pons, and M.-O. Richard. 2009. The role of language in ethnic identity measurement: A multitrait-multimethod approach to construct validation. Journal of Social Psychology 149(4): 513–540.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lau, H.T., and R. Lee. 2018. Ethnic media advertising effectiveness, influences and implications. Australasian Marketing Journal 26(3): 216–220.

    Google Scholar 

  • Le Page, R.B. 1997. The evolution of a sociolinguistic theory of language. In The handbook of sociolinguistics, ed. F. Coulmas, 374–385. Oxford: Blackwell Publishers Inc.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lee, J.S. 2006. Linguistic constructions of modernity: English mixing in Korean television commercials. Language in society 35(1): 59–91.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lee, R., K.-T. Lee, and J.Y. Li. 2017. A memory theory perspective of consumer ethnocentrism and animosity. European Journal of Marketing 51(7/8): 1266–1285.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lee, R., and M. Mazodier. 2015. The roles of consumer ethnocentrism, animosity, and cosmopolitanism in sponsorship effects. European Journal of Marketing 49(5/6): 919–942.

    Google Scholar 

  • Levine, R.A., and D.T. Campbell. 1972. Ethnocentrism: Theories of conflict, ethnic attitudes, and group behavior. New York, NY: Wiley.

    Google Scholar 

  • Li, C., and S. Kalyanaraman. 2012. What if web site editorial content and ads are in two different languages? A study of bilingual consumers’ online information processing. Journal of Consumer Behaviour 11(3): 198–206.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lin, Y.-C., and K.-Y. Wang. 2016. Language choice in advertising for multinational corporations and local firms: A reinquiry focusing on monolinguals. Journal of Advertising 45(1): 43–52.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lønsmann, D., and J. Mortensen. 2018. Language policy and social change: A critical examination of the implementation of an English-only language policy in a Danish company. Language in Society 47(3): 435–456.

    Google Scholar 

  • Luna, D., and L.A. Peracchio. 2005. Advertising to bilingual consumers: The impact of code-switching on persuasion. Journal of Consumer Research 31(4): 760–765.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mcvee, M.B., K. Dunsmore, and J.R. Gavelek. 2005. Schema theory revisited. Review of Educational Research 75(4): 531–566.

    Google Scholar 

  • Melendez, E.J., and R.H. Pritchard. 1985. Applying schema theory to foreign language reading. Foreign Language Annals 18(5): 399–403.

    Google Scholar 

  • Micu, C.C., and R.A. Coulter. 2010. Advertising in english in nonnative english-speaking markets: The effect of language and self-referencing in advertising in Romania on Ad Attitudes. Journal of East-West Business 16(1): 67–84.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mougeon, R., and K. Rehner. 2019. Patterns of sociolinguistic variation in teacher classroom speech. Journal of Sociolinguistics 23(2): 163–185.

    Google Scholar 

  • Muller, D., C.M. Judd, and V.Y. Yzerbyt. 2005. When moderation is mediated and mediation is moderated. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 89(6): 852–863.

    Google Scholar 

  • Myers-Scotton, C. 1998. A theoretical introduction to the markedness model. In Codes and consequences: Choosing linguistic varieties, ed. C. Myers-Scotton, 18–38. New York: Oxford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Myers-Scotton, C. 2000. Explaining the role of norms and rationality in codeswitching. Journal of Pragmatics 32: 1259–1271.

    Google Scholar 

  • Myers-Scotton, C. 2006. Natural codeswitching knocks on the laboratory door. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition 9: 203–212.

    Google Scholar 

  • Nyer, P., M. Gopinath, and M. Glassman. 2018. The impact of packaging languages on product evaluation: Evidence from the Czech Republic: An abstrac. In AMS world marketing congress in canterbury, NZ, ed. P. Rossi and N. Krey. Cham: Springer.

    Google Scholar 

  • Pakistan, C.C.G. 2018. “Pakistan—labeling/marking requirements”, available at: https://www.export.gov/article?id=Pakistan-Labeling-Marking-Requirements. Accessed 29 Apr 2019.

  • Paulston, C.B., and G.R. Tucker. 2003. Sociolinguistics: The essential readings. Marden: Blackwell.

    Google Scholar 

  • Prince, M., M.A.P. Davis, M. Cleveland, and D. Palihawadana. 2016. Here, There and Everywhere: A Study of Consumer Centrism. International Marketing Review 33(5): 715–754.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rao, A.R., M.E. Bergen, and S. Davis. 2000. How to Fight a Price War. Harvard Business Review 78(2): 107–120.

    Google Scholar 

  • Riley, G.A. 1975. Language loyalty and ethnocentrism in the Guamanian speech community. Anthropological Linguistics 17(6): 286–292.

    Google Scholar 

  • Santello, M. 2013. Advertising to Italian English Bilinguals in Australia: Attitudes and response to language selection. Applied Linguistics 36(1): 95–120.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sapir, E. 1949. The unconscious patterning of behavior in society. In Selected writings of Edward Sapir in language, culture and personality, ed. D.E. Mandelbaum, 554–559. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schnurr, B. 2017. The impact of atypical product design on consumer product and brand perception. Journal of Brand Management 24(6): 609–621.

    Google Scholar 

  • Semaan, R.W., S. Gould, M.C.-H. Chao, and A.F. Grein. 2019. “We don’t all see it the same way”: The biasing effects of country-of-origin and preference reversals on product evaluation. European Journal of Marketing 53(5): 989–1014.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sharp, B. 2010. How brands grow: What marketers don’t know. Melbourne: Oxford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Shimp, T.A., and S. Sharma. 1987. Consumer ethnocentrism: Construction and validation of the cetscale. Journal of Marketing Research 24(3): 280–289.

    Google Scholar 

  • Siew, S.-W., M.S. Minor, and R. Felix. 2018. The influence of perceived strength of brand origin on willingness to pay more for luxury goods. Journal of Brand Management 25(6): 591–605.

    Google Scholar 

  • Spence, C., C. Velasco, and O. Petit. 2019. The consumer neuroscience of packaging. In Multisensory packaging: Designing new product experiences, ed. C. Velasco and C. Spence, 319–347. Cham: Springer.

    Google Scholar 

  • Steenkamp, J.-B.E. 2019. Global versus local consumer culture: Theory, measurement, and future research directions. Journal of International Marketing 27(1): 1–19.

    Google Scholar 

  • Stell, G., and K. Yakpo. 2015. Code-switching between structural and sociolinguistic perspectives. Berlin: Walter de Gruyter GmbH & Co KG.

    Google Scholar 

  • Supphellen, M., and T.L. Rittenburg. 2001. Consumer ethnocentrism when foreign products are better. Psychology & Marketing 18(9): 907–927.

    Google Scholar 

  • Taylor, S.E., and S.T. Fiske. 1975. Point of view and perceptions of causality. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 32(3): 439–445.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tseng, T.-H., and G. Balabanis. 2011. Explaining the product-specificity of country-of-origin effects. International Marketing Review 28(6): 581–600.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tseng, T.-H., G. Balabanis, and M.T. Liu. 2018. Explaining inconsistencies in implicit and explicit attitudes towards domestic and foreign products. International Marketing Review 35(1): 72–92.

    Google Scholar 

  • Underwood, R.L. 2003. The communicative power of product packaging: Creating brand identity via lived and mediated experience. Journal of Marketing Theory and Practice 11(1): 62–76.

    Google Scholar 

  • Van Rompay, T.J.L., P.W. De Vries, F. Bontekoe, and K. Tanja-Dijkstra. 2012. Embodied product perception: Effects of verticality cues in advertising and packaging design on consumer impressions and price expectations. Psychology & Marketing 29(12): 919–928.

    Google Scholar 

  • Watson, J.J., and K. Wright. 2000. Consumer ethnocentrism and attitudes toward domestic and foreign products. European Journal of Marketing 34(9/10): 1149–1166.

    Google Scholar 

  • Whorf, B.L. 1956. Language, thought, and reality. In Language, thought, and reality: Selected writings of benjamin lee Whorf, ed. J.B. Carroll. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Zhou, L., Z. Yang, and M.K. Hui. 2010. Non-local or local brands? A multi-level investigation into confidence in brand origin identification and its strategic implications. Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science 38(2): 202–218.

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. University of South Australia, North Terrace, Adelaide, 5000, Australia

    Huda Khan & Richard Lee

Authors
  1. Huda Khan
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Richard Lee
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Huda Khan.

Ethics declarations

Conflict of interest

The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest.

Additional information

Publisher's Note

Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Appendix

Appendix

See Table 5.

Table 5 Data analyses of consumer ethnocentrism factor
Full size table

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Khan, H., Lee, R. A sociolinguistic perspective of the effects of packaging in bilingual markets. J Brand Manag 27, 130–142 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1057/s41262-019-00176-4

Download citation

  • Revised:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1057/s41262-019-00176-4

Keywords

Search

Navigation