Postgraduate Training in Agricultural Sciences in Ethiopia: Achievements and Challenges

Abstract

Data from the Records Office of the University show that, over the period 1979–2003, Alemaya University trained and graduated a total of 492 students at Masters of Science degree level. The study also reveals that shortage of experienced and highly qualified resident national instructors, brain drain, scarcity of financial resources, lack of laboratory equipment and supplies, and shortage of relevant and up-to-date library materials have been the principal factors affecting the smooth running of postgraduate training programmes. Finally, the study shows that as part of its national capacity building programme, the Ethiopian Government is committed to strengthening the School of Graduate Studies at Alemaya University.

Introduction

Ethiopia, with a total area of 1. 1 million km², has an estimated population size of 61.7 million (MEDaC (Ministry of Economic Development and Co-operation), 2000). The Ethiopian economy is predominantly agricultural. Consistently, over 45% of the GDP and over 90% of exportable commodities are accounted for by the agricultural sector. Moreover, this sector provides employment for about 85% of the labour force. The striking differences among regions in altitude, topography, soils, climate and farming systems enable the country to produce a variety of field crops, fruits and vegetables and rear different species of livestock.

Ethiopian agriculture is characterized by very low productivity. The average grain yield for various crops is less than 1 tonne per hectare (Belay, 2002). The animal production sub-sector experiences decreasing productivity as a result of poor management systems, shortage of feed and inadequate health-care services. The low productivity of the agricultural sector has made it difficult to attain food self-sufficiency at the national level.

One of the major obstacles to the rapid development of the agricultural sector in Ethiopia is the scarcity of skilled and experienced labour. In this regard, agricultural institutions of higher education are expected to play a leading role in training skilled labour. Yet no major effort has been made to assess the importance of these institutions in the revival of the agricultural sector or to look at factors influencing their actual performance.

This paper addresses issues of high-level agricultural manpower training in Ethiopia.¹ Historically, university-level agricultural manpower training began in the early 1950s with the establishment of the Imperial Ethiopian College of Agriculture and Mechanical Arts, now Alemaya University. This institution has been supplying the country with high-calibre graduates in agricultural sciences for over 40 years. At present, higher education in agriculture and related fields is offered at Ambo College of Agriculture and in five of the six Universities in the country. The diversity of the training programmes and the geographical dispersion of institutions of higher education in agriculture made it difficult to evaluate the performance of these institutions. Rather, as Alemaya University has played a vital role in the development of the agricultural sector through its research, outreach and teaching activities, a deliberate choice was made to evaluate its performance. It is also noteworthy that unlike other institutions of higher education in agriculture, Alemaya University offers M.Sc. degrees in various fields of agriculture. Available evidence shows that different authors have already evaluated the undergraduate programmes of the University, whereas the postgraduate training programmes have not yet been evaluated.² It is, therefore, important to evaluate achievements and weaknesses of the postgraduate programmes. In this regard, this paper is expected to help identify which weaknesses have to be addressed in order to make the programmes more efficient.

This article is organized in four parts. Part two deals with the historical development of higher level agricultural education in Ethiopia with particular emphasis on Alemaya University. Part three reviews the history of the School of Graduate Studies at Alemaya University and examines the achievements and difficulties of the postgraduate training programmes. Part four explores the future challenges for the School of Graduate Studies. Part five summarizes the main empirical findings and draws appropriate conclusions.

Origin and development of university-level agricultural Education in Ethiopia: The History of Alemaya University

University level agricultural education in Ethiopia began in the early 1950s, following the ‘Point Four General Agreement for Technical Co-operation Between the United States of America and the Ethiopian Empire’, which was signed in Addis Ababa on 16 June 1951. This agreement became the working plan and legal basis for the country's agricultural education programme.

Prior to this agreement, no institution of higher learning in Ethiopia could impact formal training in agriculture and teach practices that could contribute positively to the growth and development of the agricultural sector. Referring to the situation of trained-personnel in the sector in the early 1950s, Brannon (1966), states

By 1952, although education was receiving major governmental support, personnel with training in technical agriculture was practically non-existent. We were unable to locate within the Empire a single national with the equivalent of a Bachelor of Science degree in any aspect of agriculture. Not one. Only very few had technical training up to the diploma level.

Officials of both countries recognized the urgent need for setting up a system of agricultural education in Ethiopia. On 15 May 1952, the Agreement for a Co-operative Agricultural Education Program between The Imperial Ethiopian Government and the Government of the United States of America was signed in Addis Ababa. This agreement laid down the foundations for the establishment of the Jimma Agricultural and Technical School and the Imperial Ethiopian College of Agriculture and Mechanical Arts (IECAMA) popularly called ‘Alemaya College of Agriculture’, now Alemaya University (AU). On the following day, 16 May 1952, another agreement signed between the Technical Co-operation Administration of the United States Department of State (TCA), now United States Agency for International Development (USAID), and Oklahoma Agricultural and Mechanical College, now Oklahoma State University (OSU), gave to the latter the mandate:

• to establish and operate the College;

• to establish and operate a nationwide system of agricultural extension;

• to set up agricultural research and experiment stations; and

• to furnish technicians and administrative staff to start the College.

Based on the then Emperor's suggestion and the recommendation from Oklahoma State University, it was decided to establish the college at Alemaya, 525 km to the East of Addis Ababa. The academic programme of the College was modelled on the Land-grant College system with three fundamental but related responsibilities:

• training of highly skilled workers;

• promotion of agricultural research; and

• dissemination of appropriate technologies.

Moreover, an operational agreement, signed on 24 June 1952, between the TCA and the Imperial Ethiopian Government provided for the development and operation of the Jimma Agricultural and Technical School (JATS) at Jimma, South-western Ethiopia. The fundamental objectives of this school were: to train students in modern agricultural practices so that they could attenuate the shortage of mid-level qualified workforce in the country; and to serve as a source of future college students.

The first classes of the JATS started in October 1952, with 80 students, selected from a total of 500 applicants. The school administration assigned the successful candidates to the four high-school classes on the basis of their preparation. In all, 19 members of the senior class graduated on 6 August 1953. These graduates remained at Jimma and became the first freshman students of the IECAMA (Siegenthaler, 1965). Thus, the first university-level agricultural training programme, with a 4-year curriculum leading to a Bachelor of Science degree in General Agriculture, started in September 1953 at the JATS. The JATS was to serve as an interim site where students complete their freshman and Sophomore course requirements in the course of constructing different facilities at Alemaya. The junior class or the first group of college students moved to the University College of Addis Ababa in September 1955 where instruction was provided by American instructors who were stationed in the capital until facilities for the College were made ready at Alemaya. The IECAMA opened its doors to its first batch of students on 5 November 1956. The senior class moved from Addis Ababa to Alemaya for the final semester. On 5 July 1957 (at the end of the 1956/57 academic year), 11 students completed their studies and graduated in Bachelor of Science degrees in General Agriculture.

The original curriculum of the College was to produce graduates with B.Sc. degree in General Agriculture. Gradually, however, adapting the training programmes to the felt needs of the country led to the introduction of new programs of study.³

The IECAMA was originally conceived as an independent institution administered by a president with the advice and counsel of Trustees.⁴ Members of the Board were appointed by the Emperor and the President was appointed by the OSU and his appointment was subject to the approval of the Emperor. With the foundation of the Haile Selassie I University, now Addis Ababa University (AAU), in February 1961, the College became one of the chartered units of the University and was renamed ‘Haile Selassie I University College of Agriculture’. The post of the president was abolished on 1 July 1966 and in accordance with university policy, the top administrative position became that of a Dean. The contractual agreement with the OSU terminated in 1968 and the College was placed fully on the budget of the Ethiopian government. The College functioned as a chartered member of the AAU till 27 May 1985 when it was upgraded to a university level as Alemaya University of Agriculture. Since July 1994, the AU has been governed by a Board. In reflecting the diversity of the training programmes offered at Alemaya, following the recommendation of the University Senate in December 1999 the University Board renamed the University, Alemaya University.

Postgraduate Studies at Alemaya University

The need for postgraduate degree programmes in Ethiopia was first sensed in 1968 when the Haile Selassie I University's Presidential Commission on Planning, Reorganisation and Consolidation of Academic programmes underscored the importance and contributions of these programs. After 2 years in 1970, a Presidential Commission on Graduate Studies recommended creating favourable conditions in which more Ethiopians might study beyond their first-degree level at home. The committee's recommendations were completely forgotten. Only in the 1978/79 academic year was the establishment of the postgraduate programmes considered mandatory.

The principal motive for postgraduate programmes in Ethiopia was the shortage of teaching staff for the then undergraduate programmes (Shibru, 1982). This problem appeared to have arisen because of three main reasons. First, the already available staff, especially expatriates, left the country in the mid-1970s mainly due to political instability. Second, not many expatriate staff expected were to come from abroad because of the critical situation then prevailing. Third, Ethiopian staff members sent abroad on various staff development programmes failed to come back. The opening of new colleges and other undergraduate programmes in the late 1970s compounded the overall problem of inadequate skilled manpower. Consequently, postgraduate programmes in selected areas were launched in October 1978 at Addis Ababa University. The postgraduate programmes leading to the Master of Science degrees in the different fields of agricultural sciences were launched in the Second Semester of the 1978/79 academic year at the then Alemaya College of Agriculture (ACA) as part of the School of Graduate Studies of the Addis Ababa University. When the ACA was upgraded to a full-fledged university in 1985, it established its own School of Graduate Studies (SGS) to coordinate and administer postgraduate programmes.

The postgraduate programmes in agricultural sciences were launched with the following objectives in mind:

• to alleviate professional academic and research staff shortage in the national agricultural colleges;

• to produce agricultural scientists and qualified researchers, able to tackle and solve the prevailing overall agricultural problems of the nation;

• to train high-level manpower, equipped with the necessary scientific know-how and leadership qualities for the different government institutions and development agencies; and

• to save the foreign exchange required to employ expatriate expertise and exercise the principles of Ethiopianization and thus self-sufficiency in training staff members.

At present, the AU is the only institution of higher learning in the country that offers M.Sc. training in various fields of agriculture. The M.Sc. training is now offered in four of the five departments of the College of Agriculture, namely in Agricultural Economics, Agricultural Engineering, Animal Sciences and Plant Sciences. The specific programmes of study in each department and their commencement dates are as follows:

• Agricultural Economics: Agricultural Economics (1978/79 academic year) Agriculture and Food Marketing (1998/99 academic year)

• Agricultural Engineering: Soil and water Conservation Engineering (1998/99 academic year) Post-harvest Technology (1999/00 academic year)

• Animal Sciences: Animal Production (1978/79 academic year) Animal Breeding (1989/90 academic year)

• Plant Sciences: Agronomy (1978/79 academic year) Crop Protection (1978/79 academic year) Horticulture (1978/79 academic year) Plant Breeding (1999/00 academic year) Soil Sciences (1998/99 academic year)

The University launched also two Ph.D. programmes, namely Plant Breeding and Plant Pathology in January 2002. Preparations have been finalized to start M.Sc. training in Agricultural Extension and Range Ecology and Management in the 2003/2004 academic year.

In adapting its training programmes to the felt needs of the beneficiaries, the University started a summer M.Sc. programme. The program was started in June 2000 and was designed to cater for employees of Governmental, Non-Governmental Organizations and private firms, unable to attend programmes in the regular academic session. The course works are completed in two summer semesters, which last from mid-June to end of September. So far, a total of eight students (three in Agricultural Economics and five in Agronomy) have completed their course works and embarked on their thesis research.

The University's current 5-year plan envisages the commencement of Masters degree programmes in Animal Nutrition and Ph.D. programmes in six areas of specialization, namely in Agricultural Economics, Agronomy/Crop Physiology, Animal Breeding/Genetics, Animal Nutrition, Soil Sciences and Soil and Water Engineering.

Achievements

Postgraduate programmes in agricultural sciences have made considerable contribution to the agricultural sector through training high level agricultural professionals. Table 1 presents the M.Sc. graduates by programme of study over the 1979–2003 period.

Table 1 Masters of science graduates from Alemaya University by programme of study, 1979–2003

Table 1 shows that over the 1979–2003 period, a total of 492 students (14 women and 478 men) successfully completed their studies and graduated with M.Sc. degrees in various fields of agriculture. The number of graduates is very small compared with the country's demand for highly qualified agricultural professionals.⁵ It is, however, public knowledge that these few graduates have been playing leading roles in the agricultural education, research and extension endeavours of the country.

The postgraduate programmes are believed to have contributed to the enhancement of indigenous research capability (Demissu, 2003). Training at postgraduate level focuses on equipping the candidate with knowledge and experience in research tools and methodologies. These include: formulation of research ideas; design of sound and well-thought research projects; selection of appropriate research techniques and methods in the execution of research projects; and presentation of results of research in a scholarly and publishable form. As all the postgraduate programmes at AU require research as a basic component of the training, graduates who go through such training are in a strong position to continue undertaking research after graduation. Through their thesis research, these graduates have addressed problems related to Ethiopian agriculture. Research results compiled in the form of theses are the main sources of information for national and international organizations involved in agricultural research and development work. The postgraduate programmes have also been judged as cost effective. Thulstrup et al. (1996) in their assessment of the Swedish development support to the education sector in Ethiopia, noted that the postgraduate programmes are highly cost efficient. They are around a factor five less expensive than common international costs.

Over the period 1979–2003, the number of postgraduate students increased seven-fold, from 30 students in 1979 to 210 students in 2003. Enrolment and graduation statistics over the 1979–2003 period reveal the existence of gender imbalance in the SGS. The percentage of female students in the M.Sc. programmes varied from year to year. The average annual percentage over the period 1979/80–2002/03 was 2.6% — very low compared with the different undergraduate programmes of the University. The corresponding statistics for the undergraduate degree, diploma and continuing education diploma programmes, over the 1979/80–2002/03 period, were 7.6, 16.4 and 20.5%, respectively. The average figure for all the programmes of the University over the same period was 11.7%. Clearly, women have been poorly represented in postgraduate programmes. Postgraduate training is reliant on the rest of the education system and the distribution of enrolments at the undergraduate level is the major determinant of representation in postgraduate programmes. As female students account for only a very small fraction of the overall student population in undergraduate programmes, they are more likely to be under-represented in the postgraduate programmes.

Postgraduate programmes have helped fulfil the high-level trained manpower demand of the country. A closer look at the M.Sc. students' sponsors reveals that AU graduates serve in different capacities in various organizations.⁶ Table 2 presents the distribution of students by sponsoring organizations.

Table 2 Distribution of M.Sc. graduates by sponsoring organization, 1979–2003

Table 2 shows that AU proved its potential for helping the different governmental organizations increase the number of their highly qualified and professionally competent personnel.

Problems Affecting Postgraduate Training Programmes in Agricultural Sciences

Since its inception, the postgraduate training has faced many problems of varying degrees, ranging from minor technical issues to severe financial problems. It is important to note that the postgraduate and undergraduate programmes are intimately related and share the same facilities, staff and other resources. Both programmes have various common problems. This section examines only the most important problems, which affect the smooth running of the postgraduate programmes.

Prolonged study period

The normal duration of study in the postgraduate programmes is 2 years. Until the 1996/97 academic year, it was possible to extend it to a maximum of 5 years. This has often been the case and the principal reasons contributing to the prolongation include:

• shortage of instructors due to high turnover of experienced staff coupled with failure of those who were sent abroad, for further training, to report for duty after the completion of their studies;

• shortage of experienced and qualified professionals who could serve as research advisors, resulting in some instructors supervising the M.Sc. thesis research work of large number of students;

• the scarcity of financial resources forcing graduate students to spend much time and effort in looking for external funds;

• shortage of computers, printers and photocopiers required to prepare and finalise the thesis;

• shortage of laboratory facilities; and

• shortage of books, journals and other reference materials.

The average duration of study over the period 1979/80–2002/2003 has been 3.1 years. However, this figure, computed by considering the number of years that all postgraduate students took to complete their studies, does not take into account changes in the University's regulation that allowed students to extend their study period up to a maximum of 5 years. In August 1997, the University Senate fixed the maximum duration of study in the postgraduate programs at 3 years. The new regulation took effect at the start of the 1998/99 academic year. It is, therefore, important to analyse the length of the study period before and after the new regulation was put in place. Table 3 presents the distribution of M.Sc. graduates by length of study period over the 1979/80–1997/98, 1998/99–2002/2003 and 1979/80–2002/2003 periods.

Table 3 Distribution of graduates by length of Study, 1979/80–2002/2003

Computation of the average duration of study over the first sub-period (1979/80–1997/98) resulted in 3.6 years, whereas it resulted in 2.5 years in the second sub-period (1998/99–2002/03). The average duration of study declined between the two sub-periods. This may be attributable, principally, to the World Bank funded Agricultural Research and Training Project (ARTP) that earmarked 18.27 million US dollars to strengthen the postgraduate programmes of Alemaya University.⁷ The project was planned to strengthen the postgraduate programmes through, among others, provision of support to the graduate library, technical assistance for the purposes of teaching and advising students, purchase of vehicles, training of staff members at Ph.D. level, networking the University campus, construction of additional library, classroom, office, laboratory, and dormitory buildings and provision of office, laboratory and farm equipment. The ARTP started its planned activities in February 1999.

Over the last 5 years, about 58% of Alemaya's M.Sc. students have completed their degrees in 2 years. In the pre-ARTP period (1979/80–1997/98), only about 16% of Alemaya's M.Sc. students did so. The following factors have been instrumental in reducing the duration of study over the last 5 years:

• The ARTP funds were used to employ adequate number of qualified and experienced expatriate staff who have been actively involved in teaching and guiding thesis research work;

• Some laboratories have been equipped with modern equipment and supplied with the necessary reagents;

• The graduate library purchased periodicals, journals, electronic literature, up-to-date textbooks, and CD-ROMS on a regular basis;

• Thesis write-up was facilitated by bringing adequate number of computers, printers and photocopiers at the disposal of postgraduate students;

• The practical component of the postgraduate training and field research work has been strengthened through provision of funds; and

• Proper follow-up and supervision from sponsoring organizations, thesis research supervisors, and University management.

Shortage of library materials

Postgraduate programmes strengthen the students' analytical and intellectual capacities, help them initiate and undertake projects independently, and make them ready to work as future researchers and professionals. Realizing these objectives calls for students' ability to keep pace with the recent research work and findings in their fields of specialization. This is generally contingent upon the quality and quantity of textbooks, journals and reference materials at their disposal. Until the year 2000, the postgraduate programmes at Alemaya suffered from a chronic shortage of up-to-date journals and publications. Postgraduate students faced serious problems in doing library research. Nearly all of them had to go to Addis Ababa to look for relevant reading materials. Since the year 2000, the graduate library has received 142 printed journals, complete texts of 140 agricultural journals in electronic format including the backlogs for the 1993–2000 period and up-to-date textbooks. Even though the collections show significant improvement both in terms of quality and quantity, postgraduate students still face problems of getting backlogs of some journals. The computerization of the library system is yet to be done. Access to and application of information and communication technologies are still rudimentary.

Textbooks and teaching materials, prepared under Ethiopian conditions, are lacking for many of the courses in the School of Graduate Studies. The absence of materials, which make reference to Ethiopia coupled with the inadequate research reports on the different research projects undertaken in the country, led to the utilization of textbooks and reference materials published elsewhere. The overall effect is that students are less exposed to the objective realities of their country.

Shortage of vehicles and facilities

The majority of courses in the SGS are complemented with field laboratory sessions, educational trips, on-farm demonstrations and visits to the different public and private enterprises, ministries and non-governmental organizations. All these require that adequate transportation facilities be available whenever required. However, there has been an acute vehicle problem for graduate research work and field visits.

Postgraduate students are required to do library research, write term papers, make oral and/or written presentations and write and defend thesis. The availability of computers, printers and photocopiers is very important in facilitating the activities of postgraduate students. Until the 2000/01 academic year, there was either a shortage in the supplies of these facilities in all the departments of the College of Agriculture or the existing facilities were too old to meet the needs of researchers.

Shortage/lack of laboratory facilities and supplies

When the postgraduate programmes were launched in the late 1970s, no additional facilities were added to those already existing. Postgraduate programs depended on the resources of undergraduate programs. In a large part, the two programmes compete for laboratory facilities and supplies. Currently, the University has one central laboratory and over 30 departmental ones of which 17 belong to the College of Agriculture. Departmental laboratories are equipped with basic equipment, although some also have sophisticated equipment, particularly those in the College of Agriculture. Existing laboratories were meant to accommodate only a small number of students. In spite of the steady rise in the student population of the University, since the late 1980s, laboratory facilities have not grown commensurately. This has led to the utilization of the existing facilities in excess of their capacity. Laboratory sessions often take place under congested and inconvenient conditions. Until the late 1990s, many of the laboratories were poorly equipped to conduct thesis research work. Laboratory activities were limited to complement classroom teaching.

The overall status of the laboratories is poor because of the following reasons:

• because of inadequate preventive maintenance and lack of spare parts, much of the old equipment is not functional;

• lack of trained and experienced personnel to handle laboratory equipment contributes, to a large extent, to the poor condition of such equipment;

• some equipment and tests need chemicals unavailable in Ethiopian markets. Importing them is very difficult and long;

• some laboratories need minor renovations. Old laboratories are in a better shape than new ones because buildings and basic furniture are strong and working blades are chemical resistant. The new laboratories do not have strong nor chemical resistant furniture/blades, hoods, electric and gas systems.

The overall effect was that, for long, almost all graduate students did their laboratory analysis in other national or international research institutions. In recent years, new laboratory equipment has been procured through the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) and ARTP. Some laboratories were equipped with modern facilities and both graduate students and researchers started doing their laboratory analysis on campus. There is a serious shortage of technicians who can repair and maintain laboratory equipment. Continuous efforts made to employ qualified and experienced technicians proved futile because of low salaries in the public sector. One possible option might be to upgrade the technical skills of the existing technical staff through on-the-job training to perform simple maintenance and repairs.

Financial problems

Higher education is free in Ethiopia. Institutions of higher education are dependent upon government finance for their functioning. Postgraduate training is expensive in time, staff personnel, equipment, library materials and research requirements. However, the postgraduate programmes at Alemaya University were launched without separate budgetary allocation and without adequate planning and preparation in terms of infrastructure. Until the late 1990s, the School of Graduate Studies did not receive enough financial support from the Government to carry out its activities efficiently. Funds lacked to cover expenses related to field trips, open thesis defence examination, graduate thesis research work, purchase of laboratory equipment, consumables, computers, printers, journals, text books and employment of experienced and qualified professionals. As the undergraduate and the postgraduate programmes of the University exist in symbiotic relationship, the postgraduate programmes have been sharing the resources available to the undergraduate programmes.

Since the early 1980s, postgraduate programmes in agriculture have attracted increasing attention from various national and international organizations, which have been helpful in providing financial and material support. These organizations include:

• The United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) that provided fellowships for the training of the University staff to Ph.D. level; and purchasing of selected library, laboratory and other facilities.

• The World Bank approved a long-term loan to strengthen postgraduate training as a whole. The loan was used to construct graduate students' dormitory, classrooms, staff offices and a graduate library. It was also used to purchase books, equipment and vehicles, to employ expatriate staff, and to train staff members abroad.

• The Swedish Agency for Research Co-operation with Developing Countries (SAREC) has provided financial support for graduate thesis research work.

• The German Academic Exchange Service (DAAD) gave considerable assistance to graduate programmes by providing instructors in different fields, fellowships leading to M.Sc. and Ph.D. degrees in different disciplines for the academic staff both in-country, third-country and in Germany. DAAD offers short-term training fellowships to graduate students for analysis of experimental data, computer work, laboratory analysis of samples, and final write-up of theses in Germany.

Experience shows that financial supports from these organisations have been received as windfall gains and have been principally used to cover expenses related to graduate teaching and thesis research work. When some of these organizations have withdrawn their support after some years, the SGS was confronted with serious problems to run its programs properly. In view of the fact that the SGS will continue to play a leading role in the production of high-level professionals in various fields of agriculture for years to come, the sustainability of the postgraduate programmes depends heavily on the Government's commitment to allocate adequate financial resources.

Shortage of qualified and experienced resident national teaching staff

The School of Graduate Studies holds that graduate instruction must be done by holders of a Ph.D. The shortage of senior staff to teach postgraduate students and guide them in their thesis research work has been one of the major problems the university had to live with from the very early days of the postgraduate programmes. Given the chronic shortage of resident national staff, the postgraduate programmes depend heavily on guest and/or expatriate instructors. The courageous decision to start postgraduate programmes in agricultural sciences, in the late 1970s, was made with the hope that the programmes would be run by inviting senior staff from other institutions until Alemaya developed its own staff through overseas training. The Institute of Agricultural Research, the Economic Commission for Africa and the International Livestock Research Institute were the major sources for guest instructors and thesis advisors. Until the late 1980s, a number of courses across the departments were handled by guest instructors. Experience shows that, as these instructors came from other institutions, they did their level best to finish their courses in about 3–4 weeks. This seemed to jeopardize the quality and reputation of the programmes since students did not have enough time to do library research, write term papers, strengthen their training through educational trips and make oral or written presentations, which are obviously of vital importance at the postgraduate level.

Although the basic objective of the postgraduate programmes is to train manpower for the development needs and priorities of the country, Ethiopianization of the programmes is far from being achieved. Lacking experienced and highly qualified nationals, the sustainability of the programmes is highly dependent on the availability of expatriate staff. It is worth noting that, since the early 1990s, the University has been employing expatriate instructors through funds obtained from the World Bank and the UNDP. This situation has forced students to work with expatriate research advisors who have experience in undertaking research under conditions different from those in Ethiopia and concerned often with non-Ethiopian agricultural problems. Table 4 presents the academic staff members participating in graduate programs during the academic years 2001/2002 and 2002/2003.

Table 4 Local and expatriate academic staff members taking part in postgraduate programs in the academic years 2001/2002 and 2002/2003 by department

Table 4 shows that after over 20 years of training at the postgraduate level, the University still relies on expatriate instructors to run the programmes. Recruitment of national staff, especially at senior levels, is difficult because of low salary levels in the public sector and attractive remuneration and better employment conditions offered by private firms and non-governmental organizations. The geographical location of the University is another important obstacle to attract and retain senior staff. AU is the only University in the country, not located in a big city. It is located away from the two major cities in Eastern Ethiopia (25 km away from Harar and 45 km away from Dire Dawa). Because of its geographical location, the University has limited access to good social services, such as primary schools, medical facilities and recreation centres as well as limited employment opportunities for spouses. Unlike their colleagues working in other universities who have more opportunities for additional income through consultancy work and part-time employment, the staff members at AU have no means of earning extra income.

Brain drain

Up-grading academic qualifications of staff has been high on the agenda of the University since its establishment. Since the early 1980s unprecedented efforts have been made to train staff members to Ph.D. level so that on the completion of their studies, they would run the postgraduate programmes independently and thereby help save foreign exchange that would otherwise be paid to expatriate staff. However, upgrading and training staff have, in general, not flourished. Nearly all senior staff sent abroad for their Ph.D. degrees never come back. Table 5 presents the number of academic staff who were sent abroad to study for their Ph.D. degrees but have not come back.

Table 5 Number of staff members sent for Ph.D. studies who failed to report back to duty by country of study and department, since 1980

From Table 5 clearly the University has lost experienced professionals due to brain drain, especially to North America. The Ethiopian Government covered the training costs of 31 of the 63 staff members who failed to return after completing their Ph.D. studies. The problem of brain drain is not limited to those who were sent abroad to study for Ph.D. degrees. Since 1995, six senior staff members with Ph.D. degrees have failed to return after sabbatical or research leave.

The reasons for brain drain are varied. Of the 63 staff members, who failed to return after the completing their Ph.D. studies, 48 went abroad during the military regime. Very few managed to get relatively good jobs. The majority sought asylum in the countries where they studied, pleading fear of persecution in their country. Although conditions have improved with the downfall of the military regime in May 1991, these staff members find it difficult to return once their spouses and children became accustomed to the culture and living conditions of developed countries. As in other developing countries, working conditions for Ethiopian University staff are not ideal. Very low salaries, poor social services and lack of rewards for outstanding research and teaching led some senior staff members to leave the University to seek better jobs elsewhere.

Future Challenges

The present Government's development strategy revolves around productivity enhancement of smallholder agriculture and industrialization based on utilization of domestic raw materials with labour-intensive technology. This strategy, popularly known as ‘Agricultural Development- Led Industrialisation (ADLI)’, is tailored to fit the Ethiopian context. The strategy envisions export-led growth that feeds into an interdependent agricultural and industrial development. The ADLI strategy focuses primarily on agricultural development on the ground that improvement of the nation's agriculture is the essential first step in economic development. This is to be attained through improvement of productivity in smallholdings and expansion of large-scale private commercial farms, particularly in the lowlands. The strategy underscores the role of training and research in agricultural development. The Government took important measures to restructure the National Agricultural Research System and expand higher education activities.

The demand for competent and experienced professionals has always been high. However, supply has continuously fallen short of demand. The country's capacity to train higher-level agricultural personnel is below current requirements, mainly because of the extreme limitation of space in institutions of higher learning. The overall postsecondary enrollment in the country was only 87, 431, or about 1% of the relevant age cohort, in the 2000/2001 academic year (MoE (Ministry of Education), 2001). This is very low compared with most other developing countries. To address the problem of skilled manpower, the Ethiopian Government is engaged in reorganizing higher education institutions, including expansion of higher education activities to more regions and increasing institutional independence. In the expansion process, the School of Graduate Studies at Alemaya University is expected to play a leading role in training high-level agricultural professionals, it will be expected to upgrade the qualifications of scientific staff working in the national agricultural research system and train staff for other higher education institutions. In the next 5 years, Alemaya University's total M.Sc. enrolment — only 210 in the 2002/2003 academic year, is planned to reach 840 in 2005. Similary, the total number of Ph.D. students is planned to reach 105 in 2005.

The Government seems more committed than ever before to strengthen the SGS. It has allocated 24.89 million USD (6.62 million USD from domestic sources and 18.27 million USD of World Bank loan). Table 6 discloses the financial resources allocated to postgraduate programs in agricultural sciences.

Table 6 Budget allocated to strengthen graduate programmes at Alemaya University (in million USD), 2000–2005

As shown in Table 6, financial resources for strengthening the SGS are to improve education facilities at AU, train 43 staff members at Ph.D. level, and employ expatriate staff. The expatriates are recruited to teach in postgraduate programmes and handle research and undergraduate teaching of staff sent on training. They will be expected to stay in the University until those staff members under training return and take up their positions. Since 2000, 39 AU staff (eight in Agricultural Economics, 10 in Agricultural Engineering, four in Animal Sciences and 17 in Plant Sciences) went to the Asian Institute of Technology (Thailand) to South African and Israeli Universities to study for their Ph.D. degrees through ARTP funding. In total, 18 staff members (six in Agricultural Economics, four in Agricultural Engineering, one in Animal Sciences and seven in Plant Sciences) are pursing Ph.D. studies abroad through funds obtained from bilateral donors.

The outcome of this training programme, in terms of the number of staff who return after completing their Ph.D. studies, has yet to be judged. However, on past experience, some may not. It is also expected that, with the envisaged increment in student population and expansion of the postgraduate programmes, the demand for highly qualified instructors will be very high. This would call for bold measures aimed to retain experienced and highly qualified professionals in the University.

Conclusion

The effectiveness of the postgraduate programmes can be judged only with respect to their objectives. They undoubtedly made an enormous contribution to the agricultural sector through training high-level manpower. One can safely say that the School of Graduate Studies at Alemaya University has met its initial objectives with reasonable success.

When we turn to the current state of affairs in agriculture, need for high-level agricultural manpower remains pressing and dire. However, skilled manpower is not a panacea for the prevailing agricultural crisis in Ethiopia. Training high-level manpower alone is nothing but strengthening one of the weakest links of the sector. Technological innovations, development of infrastructure, availability of financial resources and conducive policy environment are equally important for the economic development of the nation.

Until very recently, the SGS received little support by the Government, the problems confronted have accentuated and intensified over time. Whether significant improvements have been made in postgraduate teaching and thesis research work, over the last 5 years, mainly through procuring educational facilities and employing expatriate professionals, severe bottlenecks have still to be eliminated. These include national staff retention, financial support for thesis research work, and planning and coordination of the various activities of the SGS. The Government's decision to strengthen the SGS and to allocate about 25 million USD, are moves in the right direction. The future of the SGS and its contribution to the agricultural development of the nation depend on Government support, the strength of the programmes, the competence and quality of the staff and the commitment of University management.