Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Emerging Grassroots Processes for Inclusive Citizenship: The Case of Moroccan Female Workers in the Textile and Garment Sector

  • Chapter
Political and Socio-Economic Change in the Middle East and North Africa

Abstract

This chapter reevaluates the concept of gendered citizenship in the Moroccan context of precarious employment, at a time marked by neoliberal policies implementing the ideology of globalization as a sine qua non condition for development (Heron 2008). In line with the World Bank and the IMF structural adjustment programs, Morocco has been pushing for initiatives targeting the massive recruitment of women in export-processing zones while reducing the size of its government. Ironically, some argue that far from reaping the benefits of open trade, women producing for exchange value are trapped in the exclusionary frameworks of a capitalist system that exacerbates social inequalities and blurs the meanings of digniry, hope, and human agency for the majority of the poor. Considering the first wave of popular uprisings that swept the Arab-Muslim world over the recent years, it is important to reiterate that low wages, insufficient social protection, insecure contracts, and few prospects for advancement have become common grievances for a complex web of popular classes living in the growing cities of Morocco. Indeed, fast urbanization driven by capitalist economic development—a phenomenon observed throughout the MENA region—has increased the dependence of citizens on the labor market for a livelihood.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Log in via an institution
Chapter
USD 29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD 84.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD 109.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info
Hardcover Book
USD 109.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

Preview

Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.

Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Achy, L. (2013). “Morocco’s gender-equality laws fail to improve situation.” Business and Human Rights Resource Centre, April 2. Accessed October 30, 2014, at http://www.al-monitor.com/pulse/culture/2013/04/morocco-gender-equality-failed.html#ixzz3Ea1FNSiN.

  • Arieff, A. (2013). “Morocco: Current Issues.” Congressional Research Service, 7–5700: Washington, DC. October 18. Accessed October 30, 2014, at http://www.fas.org/sgp/crs/row/RS21579.pdf.

  • Arndt, J. E. (2013). “Contending With Change: Moroccan Women’s Participation in the Textile and Clothing Manufacturing Industry.” Fulbright research project, October. Accessed October 22, 2014, at http://www.solidaritycenter.org/Files/Morocco.Contending%20with%20Change %20report%20on%20women%20in%20textile%20industry.9.13.pdf.

  • Assaf, S., and A. Alexander (2014). “Class, Power and the State in the Arab Spring.” Socialist Review 387 (January). Accessed September 17, 2014, at http://www.socialistreview.org.uk/387/class-power-and-state-arab-spring.

  • Bahramitash, R. (2007). “Female Employment and Globalization During Iran’s Reform Era (1997–2005).” Journal of Middle East Women’s Studies 3 (2): 56–58.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bahramitash, R., and H. Salehi Esfahani, eds. (2011). Veiled Employment: Islamism and the Political Economy of Women’s Employment in Iran. New York: Syracuse University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bell, V. (1999). “Performativity and Belonging: An Introduction.” Theory, Culture and Society 16 (2): 1–10.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bilge, S. (2006). “Lisa Adkins and Bev Skeggs, Eds.: Feminism After Bourdieu.” Canadian Journal of Sociology Online (January–February). Accessed August 17, 2015, at http://www.cjsonline.ca/reviews/feminismbourdieu.html.

  • Bilge, S. — (2009). “Théorisations féministes de l’intersectionnalité.” Diogène 1 (225): 70–88.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bouasria, L. (2013). Les ouvrières marocaines en mouvement. Paris: L’Harmattan.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bourdieu, P. (1990). “La domination masculine.” Actes de la recherche en sciences sociales, 8: 42–31.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bourquia, R. (1999). “Gender and Employment in Moroccan Textile Industries.” In C. Miller and J. Vivian, eds., Women’s Employment in the Textile Manufacturing Sectors of Bangladesh and Morocco, pp. 61–102. UNRISD. Accessed August 17, 2015, at http://www.unrisd.org/unrisd/website/document.nsf/(httpAuxPages)/70B951 CC15D0E977C1256D5500325D9C?OpenDocument&panel=additional.

    Google Scholar 

  • Butler, J. (1999). “Performativity’s Social Magic.” In R. Shusterman, ed., Bourdieu: A Critical Reader. Oxford, UK: Blackwell.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cairoli, L. M. (2011). Girls of the Factory: A Year with the Garment Workers of Morocco. Gainesville, FL: University Press of Florida.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Caraway, T. L. (2007). Assembling Women: The Feminization of Global Manufacturing. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Conseil de recherches médicales du Canada, Conseil de recherches en sciences naturelles et en génie du Canada, et Conseil de recherches en sciences humaines du Canada (1998). Énoncé de politique des trois conseils: Éthique de la recherche avec des êtres humains. Accessed October 15, 2014, at http://www.frsq.gouv.qc.ca/fr/ethique/pdfs_ethique/3C_ethics-f.pdf.

  • Gillot, G., and A. Martinez (2014). “Dynamiques spatiales et de genre des ouvrières marocaines du textile: un territoire en archipel,” In L. Direnberger and C. Schmoll, eds., Les Cahiers du CEDREF, pp. 121–156. Paris: Université Paris Diderot—Paris 7.

    Google Scholar 

  • Godelier, M. (1982). La production des grands hommes: pouvoir et domination masculine chez les Baruya de Nouvelle-Guinée. Paris: Fayard.

    Google Scholar 

  • Guillemaut, F. (2007). “Stratégies de femmes en migration: pratiques et pensées minoritaires. Repenser les marges au centre.” Doctoral thesis (doctorat nouveau régime), Sociology et Social Sciences, University of Toulouse II.

    Google Scholar 

  • Haraway, D. (1998). “Situated Knowledges: The Science Question in Feminism and the Privilege of the Partial Perspective.” Feminist Studies (14): 575–599.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Heron, T. (2008). “Globalization, Neoliberalism and the Exercise of Human Agency.” International Journal of Politics, Culture, and Society 20 (September, 1–4): 85–101.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Honneth, A. (2004). “Visibilité et invisibilité: sur l’épistémologie de la recon-naissance.” Revue du Mauss 23: 136–150.

    Google Scholar 

  • International Labour Organization (ILO) (2006). “Decent Work Pilot Programme—DWPP: Morocco.” National Policy Group/NPG, May 5. International Labour Organization (ILO). Accessed December 6, 2014, at http://www.ilo.org/public/english/bureau/dwpp/countries/morocco/index.htm.

  • — (2004). “Improving Competitiveness in the Textiles, Clothing and Footwear (TCF) Sectors by Promoting Decent Work.” Evaluation Report Morocco. Accessed December 6, 2014, at http://www.ilo.org/wcrosp5/groups/public/@ed_dialogue/@sector/documents/p ublication/wcms_162812.pdf.

  • Joekes, S. (1985). “Working for Lipstick? Male and Female Labour in the Clothing Industry in Morocco.” In A. Halef, ed., Women, Work and Ideology in the Third World, pp. 183–213. London: Tavistock Publications.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kergoat, D. (1982). Les ouvrières. Paris: Le Sycomore.

    Google Scholar 

  • Khalil, H. (2013). Corps, santé etpénibilité du travail des ouvrières à Casablanca. Rabat: Centre Jacques Berque.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kian-Thiebaut, A. (2012). “Gendered Citizenship and the Women’s Movement in Iran.” In R. Parsi, ed., A Revolutionary Republic in Transition, pp. 61–79. Chaillot Paper. Paris: Institute for Security Studies.

    Google Scholar 

  • Labrecque, M.-F., and B. Castilla Ramos (2010). “Recherche sur les maquiladoras du sud du Mexique et en Amérique centrale: Travail, genre et identité.” Cahiers du Laboratoire de Recherche sur l’Industrie et l’Innovation, Université du Littoral Côte d’Opale, Document de travail no 234, December (22 pages). Accessed October14, 2014, at http://www.riifr.univ-littoral.fr/wp-content/uploads/2010/12/doc-234.pdf.

  • Lacoste-Dujardin, C. (2010). “Des femmes au Maghreb: regards d’une ethnologue sur cinquante ans d’études et de recherches.” Hérodote 1 (136): 76–99.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lamrani, N. (2011). “Genre et travail dans le secteur industriel au Maroc: Étude de cas dans l’industrie textile.” Revue Juridique Politique et Economique du Maroc (Rabat, Maroc: FSJES) 48 (2): 67–90.

    Google Scholar 

  • Laskaridis, L. E. (2011). “Current Status of Women’s Education in Morocco.” Morocco World News, August 23. Accessed November 24, 2014, at http://www.moroccoworldnews.com/2011/08/7436/current-status-of -women%E2%80%99s-educationin-morocco/.

  • Lawler, S. (2005). “Rules of Engagement: Habitus, Power and Resistance.” In L. Adkins and B. Skeggs, eds., Feminism After Bourdieu, pp. 110–128. Oxford, UK: Blackwell.

    Google Scholar 

  • Léchenet, A. (2010). “La reconnaissance, condition à l’exercice de la citoyenneté … y compris pour les femmes, ou ce que peuvent nous apporter les propositions de Axel Honneth.” Congrès annuel de l’Association Suisse de Science Politique, January 7–9, Université de Genève, Atelier Genre et politique (18 pages). Accessed November 18, 2014, at http://www.hal.archivesouvertes.fr/docs/00/49/86/08/PDF/La_reconnaissance_condition_de_la_citoyennete.pdf.

  • Marques-Pereira, B. (2003). La citoyenneté politique des femmes. Paris: Armand Colin.

    Google Scholar 

  • Maruani, M. (2000). Travail et emploi des femmes. Paris: La découverte repères.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mathieu, N.-C. (1999). “Bourdieu ou le pouvoir auto-hypnotique de la domination masculine.” Les Temps modernes 604.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mathieu, N.-C. — (1984). “De la conscience dominée des femmes.” Les Cahiers du GRIF 29 (hiver 1984–85, Africaine: Sexes et signes): 7375.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Médecins du monde (2010). Accessed December 6, 2014, at http://www.medecinsdumonde.org/Presse/Communiques-de-presse/A-1-International/Maquilas-Bienvenue-en-zone-de-non-droit.pdf.

  • Moghadam, V. M. (1995). “Manufacturing and Women in the Middle East and North Africa: A Case Study of the Textiles and Garments Industry.” Working paper, University of Durham, Centre for Middle Eastern and Islamic Studies.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mohanty, C. T. (2003). “Under Western Eyes Revisited: Feminist Solidarity through Anticapitalist Struggles.” Signs 28 (2): 499–535.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mohanty, C. T. — (1988). “Under Western Eyes: Feminist Scholarship and Colonial Discourses.” Feminist Review 30: 61–88.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Morales Hudon, H. (2007). Théorisations féministes d’une citoyenneté plurielle. Master’s thesis in Political Sciences, Université du Québec à Montréal.

    Google Scholar 

  • Nordâs, H. K. (2004). World Trade Organization Discussion Paper No 5, “Global Textile and Clothing Industry post the Agreement on Textiles and Clothing.” Geneva, Switzerland: WTO Publications.

    Google Scholar 

  • Razavi, S., C. Arza, E. Braunstein, S. Cook, and K. Goulding (2012). “Gendered Impacts of Globalization Employment and Social Protection.” UNRISD Research Paper 2012–3 March. Accessed November 24, 2014, at http://www.unrisd.org/80256B3C005BCCF9/httpNetITFramePDF?ReadForm&parentunid=6E 16D1DC33F5D82BC12579D000478859&parentdoctype=paper&netitpath=80256B3C005BCCF9/(httpAux Pages)/6E16D1DC33F5D82BC12579D000478859/$file/Dfid%20 paper.pdf.

  • Rodary, M. (2007). “Le travail des femmes dans le Maroc précolonial, entre oppression et résistance: Droit au travail ou accès aux bénéfices?” Cahiers d’études africaines 3 (187–188): 753–780.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sandoval, C. (2000). Methodology of the Oppressed. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • SETEM (2011). Made in Morocco: Garment Production for Public Authorities: Traceability and Guarantee. Barcelona: Federaciôn SETEM.

    Google Scholar 

  • Siri, J. (2011). “Maroc: les limites de la constitution soumise à referendum.” Le Nouvel Observateur June 22. Accessed December 6, 2014, at http://www.rue89.nouvelobs.com/2011/06/22/maroc-les-limites-de-la-constitution-soumise-a-referendum-210457.

  • Skeggs, B. (2007). “Ambivalence and Class: Bourdieu’s Gender Troubles.” Centre for Gender Studies, Stockholm University. Accessed October 8, 2014, at http://www.medfak.umu.se/digitalAssets/29/29209_bourdieuu mea2007.pdf.

  • Solidarity Center (2013). “Moroccan Garment Industry.” Accessed December 6, 2014, at http://www.solidaritycenter.org/content.asp?contentid=1726.

  • Spivak, G. C. (1988). “Can the Subaltern Speak?” In C. Nelson and L. Grossberg, eds., Marxism and the Interpretation of Culture, pp. 271–313. Champaign, IL: University of Illinois Press.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Spivak, G. C. (1999). A Critique of Postcolonial Reason Toward a History of the Vanishing Present. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Suad, J. (2002). “Gender and Citizenship in the Arab World: Background Paper for the Programme on Governance in the Arab Region (POGAR).” UNDP, April 8. Accessed November 12, 2014, at http://www.undp-pogar.org/publications/gender/suad/genderf.pdf.

  • Tohidi, N. (2007). “Muslim Feminisms and Islamic Reformation.” In R. R. Ruether, ed., Feminist Theologies: Legacy and Prospect, pp. 93–164. Minneapolis, MN: Fortress Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Verschuur, C., ed. (2010). Cahiers Genre et Développement 7. Paris: L’Harmattan.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wheeler, J. (2003). “New Forms of Citizenship: Democracy, Family and Community in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil.” Gender and Development 11 (3): 36–44. Accessed November 12, 2014, at http://www.siyanda.org/docs/wheeler_citizendem.pdf.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Yuval-Davis, N. (1997). “Women, Citizenship and Difference.” Feminist Review 57: 4–27. Accessed December 4, 2014, at http://www.siyanda.org/docs/davis_citizendifference.pdf.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Zerari, H. (2006). “Femmes du Maroc entre hier et aujourd’hui. Quels changements?” Recherches internationales, n 77, 3, pp. 65–80.

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Authors
  1. Andrea Martinez
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Editor information

Roksana Bahramitash Hadi Salehi Esfahani

Copyright information

© 2016 Andrea Martinez

About this chapter

Cite this chapter

Martinez, A. (2016). Emerging Grassroots Processes for Inclusive Citizenship: The Case of Moroccan Female Workers in the Textile and Garment Sector. In: Bahramitash, R., Esfahani, H.S. (eds) Political and Socio-Economic Change in the Middle East and North Africa. Palgrave Macmillan, New York. https://doi.org/10.1057/9781137481429_4

Download citation

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation