Abstract
In Charles Dickens’s Nicholas Nickleby (1838–9), Mr. Pugstyles (possibly modelled on Francis Place) and several other local political activists visit a Westminster address to wait on their MP, the sometime radical Gregsbury, whose situation and speech were much like Sir Francis Burdett’s at the moment the novel was written. ‘“I am very sorry to be here, sir”, said Mr. Pugstyles; “but your conduct Mr. Gregsbury, has rendered this deputation from your constituents imperatively necessary”.’ As the discussion proceeds there follow three questions about past pledges sardonically constructed by Dickens to produce snickering on the part of his readers.
In political associations, the object of each man is to identify his creed with that of his neighbour.
William Godwin, Enquiry concerning Political Justice (1793)
The great means by which public opinion has made, and still makes itself felt, is by public meetings.
Joseph Moseley, Political Elements: or the progress of modern legislation (1852)
Every voluntary political organization contains an element of sham.
A. Lawrence Lowell, The Government of England (1910)
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Notes
PlaP, 27844, fos. 22, 29v; BrP, 56557, fos. 38v–39v; Westminster Election [1832], 1–3; The Times, 20 Nov. 1832, 11 Apr. 1837; A. Prochaska, ‘Westminster Radicalism, 1807–1832’, D.Phil. thesis (University of Oxford, 1975), 58.
K. Marx and F. Engels, The Communist Manifesto, intro. A. J. P. Taylor (1848; 1985), 113;
for a comparable critique by a liberal see J. T. Smith, Government by Commissions Illegal and Pernicious (1849), 172.
D. J. Rowe, ‘The Failure of London Chartism’, HJ 11 (1968), 482;
M. Taylor, The Decline of British Radicalism 1847–1860 (Oxford, 1995), 75.
Dinners are infrequently mentioned in works on radical Westminster MPs in this era: see J. T. Leader, Rough and Rambling Notes (1899);
E. M. Spiers, Radical General: Sir George deLacy Evans, 1787–1870 (Manchester, 1983).
[W. D. Christie], ‘Mr. John Stuart Mill for Westminster’, MacMillan’s Magazine 12 (1865), 92; Mill, CW, xvi. 1058, 1061, 1095–6, 1422, 1493, 1502, xxviii. 20. Jeremy Bentham, his mentor, felt similarly about political participation: Correspondence of Jeremy Bentham, ed. T. L. S. Sprigge et al., (1968–), ix. 150, 195.
Westminster Reform Society prospectus, JJC, Elections, London folder; PlaP, 27844, f. 271; [H. Rich], ‘Tory and Reform Associations’, ER 62 (1835), 176–7; The Times, 25 Apr. 1836, 12 Feb. 1842; Morning Chronicle, 14–19 June 1841; Peel Papers, BL Add. MS 40496, f. 86; Morning Advertiser, 17 June 1852; N. Gash, Politics in the Age of Peel: A Study in the Technique of Parliamentary Representation, 1830–1850 (1953), 400–1 and ‘The Organization of the Conservative Party 1832–1846 Part II: The Electoral Organization’, PH 2 (1983), 136.
PlaP, 27841, f. 16; T. J. Nossiter, ‘Aspects of Electoral Behaviour in English Constituencies’, in E. Allardt and S. Rokkan (eds.), Mass Politics: Studies in Political Sociology (New York, 1970), 173;
F. O’Gorman, ‘Campaign Rituals and Ceremonies: The Social Meaning of Elections in England 1780–1860’, P&P 135 (1992), 114–15;
A. August ‘A Culture of Consolation? Rethinking Politics in Working-Class London, 1870–1914’, HR 74 (2001), 193–219.
Epicure’s Almanack (1815), 115; O’Gorman, ‘Campaign Rituals’, 115; E. Yeo, ‘Culture and Constraint in Working-Class Movements, 1830–1855’, in E. Yeo and S. Yeo (eds.), Popular Culture and Class Conflict, 1590–1914: Explorations in the History of Labour and Leisure (Brighton, 1981), 168;
J. Schwarzkopf, Women in the Chartist Movement (1991), 180–1.
HP, PS2, fos. 57–8; West End News, 21 Nov. 1868; A. Windscheffel, Popular Conservatism in Imperial London, 1868–1906 (Woodbridge, 2007), 71–98.
M. Pugh, The Tories and the People (Oxford, 1985), 35–8; Windscheffel, Popular Conservatism in London, 99–102;
K. Rix, ‘“The Elimination of Corrupt Practices in British Elections”? Reassessing the Impact of the 1883 Corrupt Practices Act’, EHR 123 (2008), 93.
LWWMCA, Sixth Annual Report (1873), HP, PS3, f. 149; Nonconformist, 1 Apr. 1880. For distinctions between Tory democracy and popular Conservatism cf. R. Quinault, ‘Lord Randolph Churchill and Tory Democracy 1880–85’, HJ 22 (1979), 141–65;
R. F. Foster, ‘Tory Democracy and Political Elitism: Provincial Conservatism and Parliamentary Tories in the Early 1880s’, Parliament and Community 14 (1981), 147–75;
R. McWilliam, Popular Politics in Nineteenth-Century England (1998), ch. 8;
M. Roberts, ‘Popular Conservatism in Britain, 1832–1914’, PH 26 (2007), 387–410.
Qtd R. Shannon, The Age of Disraeli, 1868–1881: The Rise of Tory Democracy (1992), 19; for Bennett see The Times, 10 June 1867.
The Times, 12 Nov. 1867; C. Driver, Tory Radical: The Life of Richard Oastler (New York, 1946), 203–4;
J. Innes, ‘“Reform” in English Public Life: The Fortunes of a Word’, in A. Burns and Innes (eds.), Rethinking the Age of Reform: Britain 1780–1850 (Cambridge, 2003), 96.
Spectator, 1 Dec. 1832; The Times, 24 Apr. 1837, 5 Jan. 1838; BP, Ms. Eng. hist. b 200, fos. 250, 252; Evans & Lushington for Westminster [1847], National Co-operative Archive, Manchester, George Jacob Holyoake Papers, MM/96636/1, f. 228; A. D. Taylor, ‘Modes of Political Expression and Working Class Politics: The Manchester and London Examples, 1850–1880’, Ph.D. thesis (University of Manchester, 1992), 125–7.
As suggested in H. J. Hanham, Elections and Party Management: Politics in the Time of Disraeli and Gladstone (1959), 92.
P. Salmon, Electoral Reform at Work: Local Politics and National Parties 1832–1841 (Woodbridge, 2002), 48.
HP, PS1, f. 12, PS2, fos. 60, 66, PS3, fos. 102, 148; Conservative Agents and Associations in the Counties and Boroughs of England and Wales (1874), 91; Old Liberal, Letters to Working Men, No. 2: ‘Radical, Liberal or Conservative’ (1879), 2–3.
W. Bagehot, The English Constitution (1867; 1963), 61.
The Times, 18 June 1867, 30 Jan. 1874; Spectator and Illustrated Times, 21 Nov. 1868; Bishopsgate Institute, London, George Howell Coll., Howell Letters 1868, f. 29; G. W. Smalley, London Letters (New York, 1891), i. 240.
SirJ. Bowring, Autobiography (1877), 80.
P. H. Ditchfield, Old English Customs (1896), 172; The Times, 29 Mar. 1880.
PlaP, 27844, fos. 272–9; Examiner, 9 July 1837; The Times, 15–20 Dec. 1838, 20 May 1848; Morning Advertiser, 31 July 1847; Spiers, Radical General, 131–2; T. H. Lloyd, ‘Dr. Wade and the Working Class’, Midland History 2 (1973), 78.
Morning Chronicle, 14, 20 Mar. 1857; The Times, 14 Feb. 1865; [Beal], Story of the Westminster Election, 3; S. M. Ellis (ed.), The Hardman Papers (New York, 1930), 29.
The Times, 2 Dec. 1872; HP, PS3, fos. 117, 130; Pall Mall Gazette, 4 Feb. 1874; P. Thompson, Socialists, Liberals and Labour: The Struggle for London 1885–1914 (1967), 179;
T. G. Ashplant, ‘London Working Men’s Clubs, 1875–1914’, in Yeo and Yeo, Popular Culture and Class Conflict, 245–7; J. Lawrence, ‘Popular Radicalism and the Socialist Revival in Britain’, JBS 31 (1992), 172–4.
The Times, 23 May 1873, 7–8 Feb., 16 Dec. 1882, 12 Jan. 1883; Liberal and Radical Yearbook (1887), 46; PP 1877, Parliamentary and Municipal Elections, xv. 52; J. Davis, ‘Radical Clubs and London Politics, 1870–1900’, in D. Feldman and G. S. Jones (eds.), Metropolis London: Histories and Representations since 1800 (1989), 106.
St. James’s Chronicle, 11–13 May 1837; The Times, 6 July and Illustrated London News, 10 July 1852; Tea and Anarchy: The Bloomsbury Diaries of Olive Garnett, ed. B.C. Johnson (1989), 92;
see also R. Price, An Imperial War and the British Working Class: Working-Class Attitudes and Reactions to the Boer War 1899–1902 (1972), ch. 3.
The Times, 13 Oct. 1835, 20 Sep. 1842; M. D. Conway, ‘The Great Westminster Canvass’, Harper’s New Monthly Magazine 31 (1865), 741; Pall Mall Gazette, 17 Nov., Spectator, 21 Nov. 1868; Salmon, Electoral Reform at Work, 38.
Salmon, Electoral Reform at Work, chs. 1–2; M. Cragoe, Culture, Politics, and National Identity in Wales 1832–1886 (Oxford, 2004), 81–91.
For Westminster cases see The Times, 9 Oct. 1833, 16 Oct. 1835, 20 Sep. 1842; G. Pigott and B. B. H. Rodwell, Reports of Cases Decided in the Court of Common Pleas on Appeal from the Decisions of the Revising Barristers (1846), 149–50.
The Times, 3 Dec. 1847, 2 July 1886; PP 1860, Elective Franchise, xii.1, ques. 659–60; PP 1868–9, Registration Committee, vii. 301, ques. 1304, 1356; PP 1870, Registration of Votes in the Counties, vi. 191, p. 762; Mill, CW, xvi. 1071; HP, PS2, fos. 63, 67; National Union of Conservative and Constitutional Associations, Seventh Annual Conference (1873), 5; J. Vernon, Politics and the People: A Study in English Political Culture, c.1815–1867 (Cambridge, 1993), 100, 106, 131–58; Salmon, Electoral Reform at Work, ch. 1, esp. 24.
PP 1864, Registration of County Voters, x. 403, p. 51; HP, PS1, f. 34, PS2, f. 170; The Times, 13 Oct. 1865, 16 Oct. 1872, 27 Sep. 1873; West End News, 28 Nov. 1868; A. Alison, Some Account of My Life and Writings, ed. Jane, Lady Alison (1883), i. 311;
Salmon, Electoral Reform at Work, 40; J. Davis and D. Tanner, ‘The Borough Franchise after 1867’, HR 69 (1996), 309–10, Tables 2–3.
Eisenhower Library, Johns Hopkins University, Hutzler Collection, i., f. 21; PP 1868–9, Parliamentary and Municipal Elections, viii. 424–5; E. L. O’Malley and H. Hardcastle, Reports … Election Petitions (1870), i. 91;
C. O’Leary, Elimination of Corrupt Practices at Election (Oxford, 1962), 50–1. In 1880 the Conservatives failed to submit election expenses to the returning officer: PP 1880, Election Charges, lvii. 33.
B. Bushaway, By Rite: Custom, Ceremony, and Community in England, 1700–1880 (1982), 25, 158.
Diary of Henry Crabb Robinson, ed. T. Sadler (1869), ii. 121; Parliamentary and Municipal Elections, xv, 1, pp. 45, 50–3.
J. Bentham, Plan of Parliamentary Reform (1818), 17; McWilliam, Popular Politics, ch. 5; M. Canovan, Populism (New York, 1981), ch. 5.
PlaP, 27847, fos. 25–6; BrP, 47226, f. 142; J. Garrard, Democratisation in Britain: Elites, Civil Society and Reform since 1800 (2002), ch. 5;
J. Barrell, The Spirit of Despotism: Invasions of Privacy in the 1790s (Oxford, 2006), 68;
F. Trentmann, Paradoxes of Civil Society (2000), 22;
R. Rodger and R. Colls, ‘Civil Society and British Cities’, in Colls and Rodger (eds.), Cities of Ideas (Aldershot, 2004), 11.
PlaP, 27841, fos. 16, 54v, 27849, fos. 7–15; T. Cleary, Letter to Major Cartwright in Justification of the Writer’s Conduct at the Late Elections for Westminster (1819), 2–4; WAC, Leslie Grove Jones Papers, D/Jon/20; W. Thomas, ‘Whigs and Radicals in Westminster: The Election of 1819’, Guildhall Miscellany 3 (1970), 187.
Earl Grey, Parliamentary Government Considered with Reference to Reform, 2nd edn (1864), 155.
H. Arendt, The Human Condition (Chicago, 1958), 50–8;
see also D. I. Kertzer, Politics and Symbols (New Haven, 1996), 159–60;
H. F. Pitkin, ‘Justice: On Relating Private and Public’, in L. P. Hinchman and S. K. Hinchman (eds.), Hannah Arendt: Critical Essays (Albany, 1994), 270–2. In The close of the poll or John Bull in high good humour (BMC 10736, by C. Williams, 13 May 1807), Sheridan is made to declare, ‘Curse those Ballad singers what a noise they make’, referring to a female ballad-seller who, advertising one of her titles to amused listeners, bawls, ‘The same is a New Song entitled and called—Sherry done over’.
Works of John Jebb, ed. J. Disney (1787), i. 147; Westminster Committee of Association, BL Add. MS 38593, f. 24; PlaP, 27809, f. 198v, 27843, f. 403 and 27847, fos. 15–16; G. Wallas, The Life of Francis Place. 1771–1854 (1898), 133–4;
J. M. Main, ‘Radical Westminster, 1807–1820’, Historical Studies 12 (1966), 189, 202–3; The Times, 2 June 1826. For similar efforts by the Westminster Whigs c.1818–20 see WAC, Papers of Frederick Booth and Simon Stephenson, Acc. 36/144 and E/3349.
Most recently M. Crook and T. Crook, ‘The Advent of the Secret Ballot in Britain and France, 1789–1914: From Public Assembly to Private Compartment’, History 92 (2007), 449–71
and F. O’Gorman, ‘The Secret Ballot in Nineteenth-Century Britain’, in R. Bertrand, J.-L. Briquet and P. Pels (eds.), Cultures of Voting: The Hidden History of the Secret Ballot (2007), 16–42,
although see E. Hadley, Living Liberalism: Practical Citizenship in Mid-Victorian Britain (Chicago, 2010), ch. 4.
Smith, Government by Commissions, 352; B. Weinstein, ‘“Local Self-Government Is True Socialism”: Joshua Toulmin Smith, the State and Character Formation’, EHR 123 (2008), 1202.
Grey, Parliamentary Government, vii, ix, 154–62; G. P. Coull, ‘The Third Earl Grey, the Coming of Democracy and Parliamentary Reform, 1865–67. Part One: Grey and the Defeat of the Liberals’, Durham University Journal 87 (1995), 11–21;
J. P. Parry, Rise and Fall of Liberal Government in Victorian Britain (1993), 114.
The phrase is from Mill’s review of Tocqueville, Democracy in America: B. Baum, ‘Freedom, Power and Public Opinion: J. S. Mill on the Public Sphere’, History of Political Thought 22 (2001), 515–16.
For the intellectual origins of such thinking see J. H. Parry, Democracy and Religion: Gladstone and the Liberal Party, 1867–1895 (Cambridge, 1986), 250–1.
T. Miller, Picturesque Sketches of London (1852), 216; Conway, ‘Great Westminster Canvass’, 741; Spectator, 21 Nov. 1868; J. E. T. Rogers, ‘Bribery’, Essays on Reform (1867; 1967), 113–14.
Salmon, Electoral Reform at Work, 226–7; Vernon, Politics and the People, 155–7; G. Claeys (ed.), The Chartist Movement (2001), i. 120.
So argued Francis Place in the 1820s (PP 1826–7, Election Polls for Cities and Boroughs, iv. 1115, p. 15), as did The Times, 6, 11 Feb. 1874 and an election agent (PP 1877, Parliamentary and Municipal Elections, xv. 1, ques. 934); cf. B. Kinzer, The Ballot Question in Nineteenth–Century English Politics (New York, 1982), 246.
B. Kinzer, J. S. Mill Revisited: Biographical and Political Explorations (New York, 2007), 154–5;
WAC, A. M. Broadley Coll., Bath and Piccadilly 1711–1911 [1911], iii. f. 15. She may have inherited this attitude from her father: see Bentham Correspondence, ix. 179.
Arendt, Human Condition, 50; M. Canovan, ‘Politics as Culture: Hannah Arendt and the Public Realm’, History of Political Thought 6 (1985), 634;
M. P. d’Entrèves, ‘Hannah Arendt and the Idea of Citizenship’, in C. Mouffe (ed.), Dimensions of Radical Democracy: Pluralism, Citizenship, Community (1992), 151.
D. Marquand, Decline of the Public: The Hollowing Out of Citizenship (Oxford, 2004);
A. Aughey, The Politics of Englishness (Manchester, 2007), 105–6;
E. J. Yeo, ‘Some Practices and Problems of Chartist Democracy’, in Epstein and Thompson, Chartist Experience, esp. 374. On de-democratization see C. Tilly, Democracy (Cambridge, 2007), esp. ch. 3.
J. Brewer, ‘Theater and Counter-Theater in Georgian Politics: The Mock Elections at Garrat’, Radical History Review 22 (1979–80), 22–31 and The Common People and Politics 1750–1790s (Cambridge, 1986), 34–9; HWE, esp. 296; Morning Herald, 2 Apr. 1784; Late Sam House (1785);
G. Colman the Elder, Election of the Managers (1784); The Auto-biography of Luke Hansard: Printer to the House, 1752–1828, ed. R. Myers (1991), 19; George, BMC, vi.
The Times, 30 Mar. 1880, 16 Dec. 1882, 12 June 1891; J. M. Davidson, Eminent English Liberals in and Out of Parliament (1880), 231–5;
F. W. Hirst, Early Life and Letters of John Morley (1927), 15;
J. Davis, Reforming London (Oxford, 1988), 60–4. In 1865 Beal founded and during 1870–5 served as honorary secretary of the Metropolitan Municipal Association. Westerton, a clerk turned bookseller was another Placeite ex-Chartist, churchwarden of St. Paul’s, Knightsbridge, represented St. George’s, Hanover Square 1864–72 on the Metropolitan Board of Works and chaired Mill’s campaign in 1865.
W. Wolfe, From Radicalism to Socialism: Men and Ideas in the Formation of Fabian Socialist Doctrines, 1881–1889 (New Haven, 1975), 187;
N. MacKenzie and J. MacKenzie, The First Fabians (1977), 56–7;
R. Harrison, The Life and Times of Sidney and Beatrice Webb: 1858–1906, the Formative Years (Basingstoke, 2000), 4–6, 20.
Speeches of John Horne Tooke During the Westminster Election, 1796 [1796], 37; PlaP, 27843, f. 9v; J. A. Hone, For the Cause of Truth: Radicalism in London 1796–1821 (Oxford, 1982).
D. J. Rowe (ed.), London Radicalism, 1830–1834: A Selection from the Papers of Francis Place (1970), 216, 220; Davidson, Eminent Liberals, 239; The Times, 20 May 1848.
The Times, 19 Feb. 1789; A. G. R. Steinberg, ‘The City of Westminster and the British Radical Movement of the Late 18th Century’, Ph.D. thesis (St. John’s University, 1976), 309–10;
P. D. G. Thomas, John Wilkes: A Friend to Liberty (Oxford, 1996); ODNB, xi. 592–5.
Lewis Namier and John Brooke, The House of Commons, 1754–1790 (1964), iii. 95.
Illustrated London News, 8 Oct. 1898; F. Boase, Modern English Biography (1892–1921), v. 217.
H. Maxwell, Life and Times of the Right Honourable W. H. Smith (Edinburgh, 1893), i. 309–10; S. H. G. Twining, ‘Richard Twining III’, Dictionary of Business Biography (1984–6), v. 587;
S. H. Twining, House of Twining 1706–1956 (1956), 64–5; [A. M. Broadley], The Twinings in Three Centuries: The Annals of a Great London Tea House, 1710–1910 (1910), 74; Windscheffel, Popular Conservatism in London, 91.
See Viscount Chilston, W. H. Smith (1965), 49, The Times, 2 Sep. 1890 and Bagehot, English Constitution, 161.
H. Malleson, Elizabeth Malleson 1828–1916: Autobiographical Notes and Letters (1926), 117.
WAC, Broadley, Bath and Piccadilly, iii, f. 15. Ironically, Burdett-Coutts was the first woman elected to be a Poor Law Guardian: K. Y. Stenberg, ‘Gender, Class, and London Local Politics, 1870–1914’, Ph.D. thesis (University of Minnesota, 1993), 55 n. 1.
PP 1877, Parliamentary and Municipal Elections, xv. 1, p. 52; R. J. Morris, ‘Clubs, Societies and Associations’, in F. M. L. Thompson (ed.), Cambridge Social History of Britain, 1750–1950 (Cambridge, 1990), iii. 412–13.
J. F. Murray, The World of London (1843), ii. 41.
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Baer, M. (2012). Associations: From Actors to Audiences. In: The Rise and Fall of Radical Westminster, 1780–1890. Studies in Modern History. Palgrave Macmillan, London. https://doi.org/10.1057/9781137035295_8
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