Abstract
This chapter looks at popular coverage of another aspect of tissue culture research during the interwar period, focussing on the cultivation of whole organs and embryos in vitro. Although this line of research was marginal compared to the growth of ‘de-differentiated’ cells, it was scientifically important and culturally resonant. The ability to grow embryos and their parts outside of the egg or the mammalian uterus helped answer many questions surrounding growth and differentiation, and allowed scientists to determine the effects various of chemicals and hormones on development. From the 1940s, the method which scientists labelled ‘organ culture’ became an important approach in embryology, cell biology, biochemistry, endocrinology, toxicology and physiology.1
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L.M.F. Franks, ‘Summary and Future Developments’, in Michael Balls and Marjorie Monnickendam (eds), Organ Culture in Biomedical Research: Festschrift for Dame Honor Fell (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1976), pp. 549–57.
Jacques G. Mulnard, ‘The Brussels School of Embryology’, International Journal of Developmental Biology, Vol. 36 (1992), pp. 17–24, on p. 23.
Anthony M. Ludovici, Lysistrata: Woman’s Future and Future Woman (London: Kegan Paul & Co., 1926), p. 93.
Anon., ‘Woman Scientist Cultivates Life in Bottles’, the Daily Express (16 March 1936).
John E. McWhorter and Allen O. Whipple, ‘The Development of the Blasto- derm of the Chick In Vitro’, Anatomical Record, Vol. 6 (1912), pp. 121–39.
McWhorter and Whipple, ‘Development of the Blastoderm of the Chick In Vitro’ (1912), p. 121.
On Carrel’s influence over tissue culture research in the 1910s and 1920s, see Jan A. Witkowski, ‘Alexis Carrel and the Mysticism of Tissue Culture’, Medical History, Vol. 23 (1979), pp. 279–96.
Alexander Maximow, ‘Tissue Cultures of Young Mammalian Embryos’, Contributions to Embryology, Vol. 16 (1925), pp. 49–110, on p. 55.
Maximow, ‘Tissue Culture of Young Mammalian Embryos’ (1925), p. 55.
Albert Brachet, ‘Recherches sur le determinisme heredetaire de l’ oeuf des Mammiferes. Development in vitro de jeunes vesicules blastodermiques de Lapin’, Archives de Biologie (Liege), Vol. 28 (1913), pp. 447–503.
David Thomson, ‘Some Further Remarks on the Cultivation of Tissues in vitro’, Proceedings of the Royal Society of Medicine, Vol. 7 (1914), pp. 2–46, on p. 34.
David Thomson, ‘Controlled Growth en masse (somatic growth) of Embryonic Chicken Tissue In Vitro’, Proceedings of the Royal Society of Medicine: Laboratory Reports, Vol. 7 (1913), pp. 71–5, on p. 75.
Thomson, ‘Controlled Growth en masse’ (1913), p. 73.
T.S.P. Strangeways and Honor B. Fell, ‘Experimental Studies on the Differentiation of Embryonic Tissues Growing in vivo and in vitro — I. The Development of the Undifferentiated Limb Bud (a) when Subcutaneously Grafted into the Post-Embryonic Chick and (b) when Cultivated in vitro’, Proceedings of the Royal Society of London. Series B, Containing Papers of a Biological Character, Vol. 99 (1926), pp. 340–66, on p. 355.
Honor Fell ‘The Development of Organ Culture’, in Michael Balls and Marjorie Monnickendam (eds), British Society for Cell Biology Symposium 1: Organ Culture in Biomedical Research: Festschrift for Dame Honor Fell, FRS (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1976), pp. 1–13, on p. 3.
For the original paper, see T.S.P. Strangeways and Honor B. Fell, ‘Experimental Studies on the Differentiation of Embryonic Tissues Growing in vivo and in vitro — II. The Development of the Isolated Early Embryonic Eye of the Fowl when Cultivated in vitro’, Proceedings of the Royal Society of London. Series B, Containing Papers of a Biological Character, Vol. 100 (1926), pp. 273–83.
Strangeways, ‘The Living Cell’ (1926), p. 526.
Honor B. Fell, ‘The Development in vitro of the isolated otocyst of the embryonic fowl’, Archiv für experimentelle Zellforschung, Vol. 7 (1928), pp. 69–81.
Fell, ‘Development of Organ Culture’ (1976), p. 3.
Honor B. Fell and Robert Robison, ‘The Growth, Development and Phosphatase Activity of Embryonic Avian Femora and Limb-Buds Cultivated In Vitro’, Biochemical Journal, Vol. 23 (1929), pp. 767–84.
Nick Hopwood, ‘Embryology’, in Peter J. Bowler and John V. Pickstone (eds), The Cambridge History of Science, Volume 6: The Modern Biological and Earth Sciences (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2009), pp. 287–316, on pp. 306–7.
Alan Robertson, ‘Conrad Hal Waddington. 8 November 1905–26 September 1975’, Biographical Memoirs of Fellows of the Royal Society, Vol. 23 (1977), pp. 575–622.
Conrad H. Waddington, ‘Induction by Coagulated Organisers in the Chick Embryo’, Nature, Vol. 131 (1933), pp. 275–6.
idem, ‘Experiments on the Development of Chick and Duck Embryos, Cultivated In Vitro’, Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B, Containing Papers of a Biological Nature, Vol. 221 (1932), pp. 179–230.
C.H. Waddington and A.J. Waterman, ‘The Development In Vitro of Young Rabbit Embryos’, Anatomy, Vol. 57 (1932), pp. 355–70.
Alan Robertson, ‘Conrad Hal Waddington’ (1977), p. 590.
Abir-Am, ‘The Assessment of Interdisciplinary Research in the 1930s’ (1988).
Julian Huxley, ‘Tissue Growth: The British Association Meetings’ (1927), p. 8.
Masters, ‘Science Gets Its Biggest Thrill from the Spark of Life’ (1932).
Burke, ‘Could You Love a Chemical Baby? For That’s What Science Looks Like Producing Next’, Tit-Bits (16 April 1938).
J.B.S. Haldane, Daedalus, Or Science and the Future (London: Kegan Paul & Co., 1924), p. 1.
On the background to Daedalus and Haldane’s wartime experiences, see Ronald Clark, J.B.S.: The Life and Work of J.B.S. Haldane (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1984).
See also Turney (1998), pp. 99–101; Susan Squier, Babies in Bottles: Twentieth-Century Visions of Reproductive Technology (New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, 1994), pp. 66–73.
Anon., ‘The Age of Miracles’, the Observer (21 December 1924). An 1926 advert for Daedalus in the Manchester Guardian indicates that the book quickly went through seven impressions. See also Clark, J.B.S. (1984), p. 70.
Haldane, Daedalus (1924), p. 10.
Daniel Kevles, In the Name of Eugenics: Genetics and the Uses of Human Heredity (Cambridge, Mass: Harvard University Press, 1995), pp. 91–2.
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Werskey, The Visible College (1978), pp. 96–7.
Kevles notes that the young Haldane ‘sympathized for a time with aspects of [mainstream eugenics] particularly its denigration of the lower classes and eagerness to reduce their rate of reproduction’. See ibid, p. 123. In an analysis of Daedalus, the molecular biologist David Weatherall also claims that: ‘At the time Haldane wrote Daedalus, he was an enthusiastic eugenicist’. See David J. Weatherall, ‘Daedalus, Haldane, and Medical Science’, in Krishna R. Dronamraju (ed.), Haldane’s Daedalus Revisited (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1995), pp. 102–24, on p. 112.
See Overy, Morbid Age (2009), pp. 93–9 for discussion of Marie Stopes and eugenics; see also Kevles (1995), pp. 90–1.
Anon., ‘Review of Daedalus, or Science and the Future’, Nature, Vol. 113 (1924), p. 740.
In a 1932 publication on the culture of chick and duck embryos, Conrad Waddington outlined how Strangeways had cultured whole chick embryos, but added that ‘only a few experiments were made and the results were never published’. See Waddington, ‘Development of Chick and Duck Embryos’ (1932), p. 181. Honor Fell also claimed that Strangeways enjoyed ‘considerable success’ in culturing whole chick embryos.
See Fell, ‘Cell Biology’ (1962), p. 20.
T.S.P. Strangeways, ‘Lecture 1: Tissue Culture’ (December 1926). Wellcome archives, SA/SRL/A.27.
Strangeways ‘Tissue Culture’ (1926).
Henry Harris, ‘This is Not a Prophecy — It’s News About … Test-Tube Babies!’, the Daily Mirror (19 May 1937).
Eden Paul, Chronos, or the Future of the Family (London: Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner & Co., 1929), p. 51.
F.E. Birkenhead, The World in 2030 (London: Hodder and Stoughton, 1930), p. 165.
Julian Huxley, ‘The Tissue Culture King’, reprinted in Geoff Cronklin (ed.), Great Science Fiction by Scientists (New York: Collins Books, 1970), pp. 348–65, on p. 355.
Huxley, ‘The Tissue Culture King’ (1970), p. 359.
J.D. Bernal, The World, The Flesh and the Devil: An Inquiry into the Future of the Three Enemies of the Rational Soul (Second Edition: London: Jonathan Cape, 1970), p. 37.
Bernal, The World, the Flesh and the Devil (1970), p. 32.
See Christine Poggi, ‘Dreams of Metallized Flesh: Futurism and the Masculine Body’, Modernism/Modernity, Vol. 4 (1997), pp. 19–43.
Bertrand Russell, Icarus, or the Future of Science (London: Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner & Co., 1924), p. 2.
Anthony Ludovici, cited in Dan Stone, ‘Ludovici, Anthony Mario (1882– 1971)’, Oxford Dictionary of National Biography (Oxford: Oxford University Press, online edition, 2009).
Anthony M. Ludovici, Lysistrata, or Woman’s Future and Future Woman (London: Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner & Co., 1924), p. 76.
See Robert Crossley, ‘Olaf Stapledon and Idea of Science Fiction’, Modern Fiction Studies, Vol. 32 (1986), pp. 21–42.
Olaf Stapledon, Last and First Men (London: Millennium Books, 2004), p. xv.
See Robert Crossley, Olaf Stapledon: Speaking for the Future (Liverpool: Liverpool University Press, 1994).
Stapledon, Last and First Men (2004), p. 188.
See Charlotte Sleigh, ‘Plastic Body, Permanent Body: Czech Representations of Corporeality in the early Twentieth Century’, Studies in the History and Philosophy of Science, Part C. Studies in the History and Philosophy of the Biological and Biomedical Sciences, Vol. 40 (2009), pp. 241–55.
See Ludmilla Jordonova, Sexual Visions: Images of Gender in Science and Medicine Between the Eighteenth and Twentieth Centuries (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1989).
Biographical information in Martin H. Greenberg (ed.), Amazing Science Fiction Anthology: The Wonder Years, 1926–1935 (London: TSR UK, 1987), p. 318.
Francis Flagg, ‘The Machine Man of Ardathia’, reprinted in Greenberg (ed.), Amazing Science Fiction Anthology (1987), pp. 77–95, on pp. 79, 88.
Flagg, ‘Machine Man of Ardathia’ (1987), p. 88.
David H. Keller, ‘A Biological Experiment’, reprinted in David H. Keller, Tales from Underwood (Jersey: Spearman Press, 1952), pp. 135–52, on p. 138.
Keller, ‘A Biological Experiment’ (1952), p. 135.
Turney (1998), p. 115. See also, John Harris, On Cloning (London: Routledge, 2004).
Judith Arlene Klotzko, A Clone of Your Own? The Art and Science of Cloning (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2004).
Francis Fukuyama, Our Posthuman Future: Consequences of the Biotechnology Revolution (London: Profile Books, 2002).
Aldous Huxley, Antic Hay (London: Vintage Books, 2004), p. 49.
On Huxley’s relationship with J.B.S. Haldane, see Nicholas Murray, Aldous Huxley: An English Intellectual (London: Little, Brown, 2002); Clark (1984).
Aldous Huxley, ‘Economists, Scientists, and Humanists’, in Adams (ed.), Science and the Changing World (1932), p. 222.
This quote on mass-production is taken from Aldous Huxley, ‘To the Puritan All Things are Impure’, in Aldous Huxley, Music at Night & Other Essays (London: Chatto and Windus, 1931), pp. 173–84, on p. 180.
Aldous Huxley, Brave New World (London: Flamingo Books, 1994), p. 13.
Huxley, Brave New World (1994), p. 5.
Joseph Needham, ‘Biology and Mr. Huxley: review of Brave New World by Aldous Huxley’, Scrutiny (May 1932), pp. 76–9. Cf. Turney (1998), p. 116.
Squier, Babies in Bottles (1994), p. 147.
Needham, ‘Biology and Mr. Huxley’ (1932), p. 78. Emphasis in original.
Honor B. Fell, ‘Tissue Culture: The Advantages and Limitations as a Research Method’, British Journal of Radiology, Vol. 8 (1935), pp. 27–31, on p. 27.
Fell, ‘Tissue Culture’ (1935), p. 27.
Special Correspondent, ‘Woman Scientist Cultivates Life in Bottles’, Daily Express (16 March 1936).
Special Correspondent, ‘Woman Scientist Cultivates Life in Bottles’ (1936).
Harrison Hardy, ‘Any TIN in the Sun?’, the Daily Mirror (20 March 1937).
Burke, ‘Could You Love a Chemical Baby?’ (1938).
Honor B. Fell to Archibald Vivian Hill (30 May 1939), Wellcome Archives, PP/HBF/B.1. For an example of Waddington’s popular writing see, Conrad H. Waddington, ‘Twenty-Five Years of Biology’, Discovery (May 1935), pp. 134–7.
For critical analysis of this issue, see Jackson, George Newnes (2001).
D.L. LeMahieu, A Culture for Democracy: Mass Communication and the Cultivated Mind in Britain Between the Wars (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1988).
Lori Andrews and Dorothy Nelkin, ‘Whose Body is it Anyway? Disputes over Body Tissue in a Biotechnology Age’, the Lancet, Vol. 351 (1998), pp. 53–7, on p. 55.
Andrews and Nelkin, ‘Whose Body is it Anyway?’ (1998), pp. 55, 56.
Peter J. Bowler, Science for All: The Popularization of Science in Early Twentieth-Century Britain (Chicago and London: University of Chicago Press, 2009).
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© 2011 Duncan Wilson
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Wilson, D. (2011). ‘Could You Love a Chemical Baby?’ Organ Culture in Interwar Britain. In: Tissue Culture in Science and Society. Science, Technology and Medicine in Modern History. Palgrave Macmillan, London. https://doi.org/10.1057/9780230307513_3
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