Abstract
The previous chapter sought to demonstrate that multiculturalism is not merely an ideology or a mechanism for containing and managing ‘difference’. Rather, it is embodied by ordinary people on a daily basis through practices of encounter and exchange. By providing a brief overview of the emergence, and subsequent ‘demise’, of state multiculturalism, the aim was to illustrate that fixed, top-down conceptualisations fail to account for the interactions, the negotiations, the struggles and the contestations that make up the mosaic of cosmopolitan life. In reality, top-down state policies and practices, and everyday intercultural intermingling are intricately connected, with shifts in wider social and political structures filtering down to shape these interactions. Whilst the field exploring these ‘actually existing multiculturalisms’ (Uitermark et al. 2005) is burgeoning, academic attention has been disproportionately weighted towards investigating the opinions and experiences of adults. As the last chapter noted, young people are often overlooked, and in some contexts ignored altogether, when it comes to the topics of identity, national belonging, diversity and intercultural conflict. However, research that has actively involved young people reveals not only that they are more likely to encounter diversity and ‘difference’ in daily life, but that these everyday interactions play a significant part in moulding a young person’s sense of self and also there sense of others.
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
References
Aboud, F. E. (2005). The development of prejudice in children and adolescents. In J. F. Dovido, P. S. Glick, & L. A. Rudman (Eds.), On the nature of prejudice: Fifty years after Allport (pp. 310–326). Oxford: Blackwell.
Allen, C. (2007). Islamaphobia in Europe. In S. Amghar, A. Boubekeur, & M. Emerson (Eds.), European Islam: The challenges for public policy and society. Brussels: Centre for European Policy Studies.
Allen, C. (2010). Fear and loathing: The political discourse in relation to Muslims and Islam in the contemporary British setting. Politics and Religion, 4(2), 221–236.
Allport, G. W. (1954). The nature of prejudice. Cambridge: Addison-Wesley.
Amin, A. (2002). Ethnicity and the multicultural city: Living with diversity. Environment and Planning, 34(6), 959–980.
Ashcroft, M. (2013). 45 years on, do ethnic minorities remember “Rivers of Blood”?, Available at: http://lordashcroftpolls.com/2013/04/45-years-on-do-ethnic-minorities-remember-rivers-of-blood/. Accessed 19 Apr 2013.
Augustinos, M., & Reynolds, K. (2001). Understanding prejudice, racism and social conflict. London: Sage.
Baca Zinn, M., & Thornton Dill, B. (1996). Theorizing difference from multiracial feminism. Feminist Studies, 22(2), 321–331.
Bartlett, J., Birdwell, J., & Littler, M. (2011). The new face of digital populism. London: Demos.
BBC News. (2005). UK majority back multiculturalism. Available at: http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk/4137990.stm. Accessed 19 Apr 2015.
Betts, K. (2005). Cosmopolitans and patriots: Australia’s cultural divide and attitudes to immigration. People and Place, 13(2), 29–40.
Bigler, R. S., & Liben, L. S. (2006). A developmental intergroup theory of social stereotypes and prejudice. Advances in Child Development and Behavior, 34, 39–89.
Bowling, B. (1993). Racial harassment and the process of victimisation. British Journal of Criminology, 33(2), 231–250.
Bowling, B. (1999). Violent racism: Victimization, policing and social context. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Bowling, B., & Phillips, C. (2002). Racism, crime and justice. Harlow: Pearson.
Branscombe, N. R., & Wann, D. L. (1994). Collective self-esteem consequences of out-group derogation when a valued social identity is on trial. European Journal of Social Psychology, 24(6), 641–657.
Breugelmans, S. M., & Van de Vijver, F. J. R. (2004). Antecedents and components of majority attitudes toward multiculturalism in the Netherlands. Applied Psychology: An International Review, 53(3), 400–422.
Brown, B. (2010). Prejudice: Its social psychology (2nd ed.). Malden: Wiley-Blackwell.
Burgess-Proctor, A. (2006). Intersections of race, class, gender, and crime: Future directions for feminist criminology. Feminist Criminology, 1(1), 27–47.
Byers, B., Crider, B. W., & Biggers, G. K. (1999). Bias crime motivation: A study of hate crime and offender neutralization techniques used against the Amish. Journal of Contemporary Criminal Justice, 15(1), 78–96.
Chahal, K., & Julienne, L. (1999). ‘We can’t all be white!’: Racist victimisation in the UK. York: Joseph Rowntree Foundation.
Chakraborti, N., & Garland, J. (2015). Hate crime: Impact, causes and responses (2nd ed.). London: Sage.
Chakraborti, N., Garland, J., & Hardy, S. (2014). The Leicester hate crime project: Findings and conclusions. Leicester: University of Leicester.
CPS (Crown Prosecution Service). (2014). Hate crimes and crimes against older people. London: CPS.
Cuhadar, E., & Dayton, B. (2011). The social psychology of identity and inter-group conflict: From theory to practice. International Studies Perspectives, 12(3), 273–293.
Dixon, B., & Gadd, D. (2006). Getting the message? ‘New’ labour and the criminalisation of ‘hate’. Criminology and Criminal Justice, 6(3), 309–328.
Duffy, B., & Frere-Smith, T. (2014). Perception and reality: Public attitudes to immigration. London: Ipsos MORI.
Edwards, R., Franklin, J., & Holland, J. (2003). Families and social capital: exploring the issues. Families & Social Capital ESRC Research Group Working Paper No. 1, London: London South Bank University.
Gadd, D., Dixon, B., & Jefferson, T. (2005). Why do they do it? Racial harassment in North Staffordshire: Key findings. Keele: University of Keele.
Gadd, D. (2009). Aggravating racism and elusive motivation. British Journal of Criminology, 49(6), 755–771.
Germain, A., & Radice, M. (2006). Cosmopolitanism by default: Public sociability in Montreal. In J. Binnie, J. Holloway, S. Millington, & C. Young (Eds.), Cosmopolitan urbanism (pp. 112–139). London: Routledge.
Giles, H., & Hewstone, M. (1986). Social groups and social stereotypes in intergroup communication: Review and model of intergroup communication breakdown. In W. B. Gudykunst (Ed.), Intergroup communication (pp. 10–26). London: Arnold.
Gottfredson, M. R., & Hirschi, T. (1990). A general theory of crime. Stanford: Stanford University Press.
Green, D. P., McFalls, L. H., & Smith, J. K. (2003). Hate crime: An emergent research agenda. In B. Perry (Ed.), Hate and bias crime: A reader (pp. 27–48). New York: Routledge.
Hall, N. (2013). Hate crime (2nd ed.). Oxon: Routledge.
Hemmerman, L., Law, I., Simms, J., & Sirriyeh, A. (2007). Situating racist hostility and understanding the impact of racist victimisation in Leeds. Leeds: University of Leeds.
Hewitt, R. (1996). Routes of racism: The social basis of racist action. Stoke-on-Trent: Trentham Books.
Hewstone, M., Rubin, M., & Willis, H. (2002). Intergroup bias. Annual Review of Psychology, 53, 575–604.
Hjerm, M. (2005). What the future may bring: Xenophobia among swedish adolescents, Sociology, 48(4), 292–307.
Hogg, M. A. (2005). All animals are equal but some animals are more equal than others: Social identity and marginal membership. In W. Kipling, D. Forgas, P. Joseph, & W. von Hippel (Eds.), The social outcast: Ostracism, social exclusion, rejection, and bullying (pp. 243–261). New York: Psychology Press.
Iganski, P. (2008). ‘Hate crime’ and the city. Bristol: The Policy Press.
Iganski, P., Smith, D., Dixon, L., Kielinger, V., Mason, G., McDevitt, J., Perry, B., & Stelman, A. (2011). Rehabilitation of hate crime offenders: Research report. London: EHRC.
Jacobs, J., & Potter, K. (1998). Hate crimes: Criminal law and identity politics. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Jamal, A. (2009). The racialization of Muslim Americans. In A. H. Sinno (Ed.), Muslims in Western politics (pp. 200–218). Bloomington: Indiana University Press.
Kepel, G. (2005). Europe's answer to Londonistan. Available at: https://www.opendemocracy.net/conflict-terrorism/londonistan_2775.jsp. Accessed 19 Apr 2016.
Kumar, R., Seay, N., & Karabenick, S. (2011). Shades of white: Identity status, stereotypes, prejudice, and xenophobia. Educational Studies: A Journal of the American Educational Studies Association, 47(4), 347–378.
Lawrence, F. (1999). Punishing hate: Bias crimes under American law. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.
Legrain, P. (2006). Immigration: Your country needs them. London: Little, Brown.
Levin, J., & McDevitt, J. (1993). Hate crimes: The rising tide of bigotry and bloodshed. New York: Plenum.
Lun, J., Sinclair, S., Glenn, C., & Whitchurch, E. R. (2007). (Why) do I think what you think? Epistemic social tuning and implicit prejudice. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 93(6), 957–972.
McDevitt, J., Levin, J., & Bennet, S. (2002). Hate crime offenders: An expanded typology. Journal of Social Issues, 58(2), 303–317.
McDevitt, J., Levin, J., Nolan, J., & Bennett, S. (2010). Hate crime offenders. In N. Chakraborti (Ed.), Hate crime: Concepts, policy, future directions (pp. 124–145). Cullompton: Willan.
Medin, D. L. (1989). Concepts and conceptual structure. American Psychologist, 44, 1469–1481.
Miles, R., & Brown, M. (2003). Racism. London: Routledge.
Milner, D. (1975). Children and race. Harmondsworth: Penguin.
Modood, T. (2007). Multiculturalism: Themes for the 21st century. Cambridge: Polity Press.
Modood, T. (2012). Capitals, ethnicity and higher education. In B. Tehmina & S. Tomlinson (Eds.), Social inclusion and higher education (pp. 17–40). Bristol: Policy Press.
Pagani, C., & Robustelli, F. (2010). Young people, multiculturalism and educational interventions for the development of empathy. International Social Science Journal, 61, 247–261.
Paluck, E. L. (2010). Peer pressure against prejudice: A high school field experiment examining social network change. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 47, 350–358.
Perry, B. (2001). In the name of hate: Understanding hate crimes. London: Routledge.
Perry, B. (2003). Where do we go from here? Researching hate crime. Available at: http://www.internetjournalofcriminology.com/Where%20Do%20We%20Go%20From%20Here.%20Researching%20Hate%20Crime.pdf. Accessed 19 Apr 2016.
Pickering, J., Kintrea, K., & Bannister, J. (2012). Invisible walls and visible youth: Territoriality among young people in British cities. Urban Studies, 49(5), 945–960.
Putnam, R. D. (2000). Bowling alone: The collapse and revival of American community. New York: Simon and Schuster.
Ray, L., & Smith, D. (2001). Racist offenders and the politics of ‘hate crime’. Law and Critique, 12(3), 203–221.
Sachdev, I., & Bourhis, R. Y. (1991). Power and status differentials in minority and majority group relations. European Journal of Social Psychology, 21(1), 1–24.
Sibbitt, R. (1997). The perpetrators of racial harassment and racial violence (Home Office research study, 176). London: Home Office.
Tajfel, H. (1981). Human groups and social categories: Studies in social psychology. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Tajfel, H., & Turner, J. C. (1979). An integrative theory of intergroup conflict. In W. G. Austin & S. Worchel (Eds.), The social psychology of intergroup relations (pp. 33–47). Monterey: Brooks/Cole.
Tajfel, H., & Turner, J. C. (1986). The social identity theory of inter-group behavior. In S. Worchel & L. W. Austin (Eds.), Psychology of intergroup relations (pp. 7–24). Chicago: Nelson-Hall.
Taylor, M., & Muir, H. (2014). Racism on the rise in Britain. Available at: http://www.theguardian.com/uk-news/2014/may/27/-sp-racism-on-rise-in-britain. Accessed 19 Apr 2016.
Trahan, A. (2011). Qualitative research and intersectionality. Critical Criminology, 19(1), 1–14.
Turner, J. C. (1991). Social influence. Milton Keynes: Open University Press.
Uitermark, J., Rossi, U., & van Houtum, H. (2005). Reinventing multiculturalism: Urban citizenship and the negotiation of ethnic diversity in Amsterdam. International Journal of Urban and Regional Research, 29(3), 622–640.
Van Oudenhoven, J. P., Prins, K. S., & Buunk, B. P. (1998). Attitudes of minority and majority members toward adaptation of immigrants. European Journal of Social Psychology, 28, 995–1013.
Walters, M. A. (2011). A general theories of hate crime? Strain, doing difference and self control. Critical Criminology, 19(4), 313–330.
Walters, M. A., & Hoyle, C. (2012). Exploring the everyday world of hate victimisation through community mediation. International Review of Victimology, 18(1), 7–24.
Worchel, S., Cooper, J., & Goethals, G. R. (1988). Understanding social psychology (4th ed.). Chicago: Dorsey.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Copyright information
© 2017 The Author(s)
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Hardy, SJ. (2017). Everyday Hate. In: Everyday Multiculturalism and ‘Hidden’ Hate. Palgrave Hate Studies. Palgrave Macmillan, London. https://doi.org/10.1057/978-1-137-53236-7_3
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1057/978-1-137-53236-7_3
Published:
Publisher Name: Palgrave Macmillan, London
Print ISBN: 978-1-137-53235-0
Online ISBN: 978-1-137-53236-7
eBook Packages: Law and CriminologyLaw and Criminology (R0)