Abstract
Although the reported prevalence rates of experiencing cyberbullying as a target tend to converge between 20 and 40 %, there is huge variation in the reported prevalence rates of cyberbullying from the perspective of the target, perpetrator, and perpetrator/target. Some of this variation can be accounted for by methodological differences between studies. However, other factors relating to the sample studied such as their age, sex, and nationality may go some way to explain this variation. In addition to presenting a review of the prevalence rates reported in contemporary research, this chapter will also discuss the factors associated with involvement in cyberbullying.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution.
Buying options
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
Learn about institutional subscriptionsReferences
Accordino, D. B., & Accordino, M. P. (2011). An exploratory study of face-to-face and cyberbullying in sixth grade students. American Secondary Education, 40, 14–30.
Ackers, M. J. (2012). Cyberbullying: Through the eyes of children and young people. Educational Psychology in Practice: Theory, Research and Practice in Educational Psychology, 28, 141–157.
Akbulut, Y., & Eristi, B. (2011). Cyberbullying and victimisation among Turkish university students. Australasian Journal of Educational Technology, 27, 1155–1170.
Allen, K. P. (2012). Off the radar and ubiquitous: Text messaging and its relationship to ‘drama’ and cyberbullying in an affluent, academically rigorous US high school. Journal of Youth Studies, 15, 99–117.
Álvarez-García, D., Núňez Pérez, J. C., Dobarro González, A., & Rodríguez Pérez, C. (2015). Risk factors associated with cybervictimization in adolescence. International Journal of Clinical Health Psychology, 15, 226–235.
Analitis, F., Velderman, M. K., Ravens-Sieberer, U., Detmar, S., Erhart, M., Berra, S., … European Kidscreen Group. (2009). Being bullied: Associated factors in children and adolescents 8 to 18 years old in 11 European countries. Pediatrics, 123, 569–577.
Aricak, O. T. (2009). Psychiatric symptomatology as a predictor of cyberbullying among university students. Eurasian Journal of Educational Research, 34, 167–184.
Aricak, T., Siyahhan, S., Uzunhasanoglu, A., Saribeyoglu, S., Ciplak, S., Yilmaz, N., & Memmedov, C. (2008). Cyberbullying among Turkish adolescents. CyberPsychology & Behavior, 11, 253–261.
Bannink, R., Broeren, S., Van de Looij-Jansen, P. M., de Waart, F. G., & Raat, H. (2014). Cyber and traditional bullying victimization as a risk factor for mental health problems and suicidal ideation in adolescents. PLOS ONE, 9, e94026.
Barlett, C. P., Gentile, D. A., & Chew, C. (2014). Predicting cyberbullying from anonymity. Psychology of Popular Media Culture. Advanced online publication.
Bauman, S. (2010). Cyberbullying in a rural intermediate school: An exploratory study. Journal of Early Adolescence, 30, 803–833.
Bauman, S., & Newman, M. L. (2013). Testing assumptions about cyberbullying: Perceived distress associated with acts of conventional and cyber bullying. Psychology of Violence, 3, 27–38.
Beran, T., & Li, Q. (2005). Cyber-harassment: A study of a new method for an old behavior. Journal of Educational Computing Research, 32, 265–277.
Berne, S., Frisén, A., Schultze-Krumbholz, A., Scheithauer, H., Naruskov, K., Luik, P., … Zukauskiene, R. (2013). Cyberbullying assessment instruments: A systematic review. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 18, 320–334.
Blakeney, K. (2012). An instrument to measure traditional and cyber bullying in overseas schools. International Schools Journal, 32, 45–54.
Brack, K., & Caltabiano, N. (2014). Cyberbullying and self-esteem in Australian adults. Journal of Psychosocial Research on Cyberspace, 8, article 7.
Brewer, G., & Kerslake, J. (2015). Cyberbullying, self-esteem, empathy and loneliness. Computers in Human Behavior, 48, 255–260.
Butler, D., Kift, S., & Campbell, M. (2009). Cyber bullying in schools and the law: Is there an effective means of addressing the power imbalance? eLaw Journal: Murdoch University Electronic Journal of Law, 16, 84–114.
Calvete, E., Orue, I., Estévez, A., Villardón, L., & Padilla, P. (2010). Cyberbullying in adolescents: Modalities and aggressors’ profile. Computers in Human Behavior, 26, 1128–1135.
Connell, N. M., Schell-Bussey, N. M., Pearce, A. N., & Negro, P. (2014). Badgrlz? Exploring sex differences in cyberbullying behaviours. Youth Violence and Juvenile Justice, 12, 209–228.
Crosslin, K., & Crosslin, M. (2014). Cyberbullying at a Texas University—A mixed methods approach to examining online aggression. Texas Public Health Journal, 66, 26–31.
D’Anotona, R., Kevorkian, M., & Russom, A. (2010). Sexting, texting, cyberbullying and keeping youth safe online. Journal of Social Sciences, 6, 521–526.
Dehue, F. (2013). Cyberbullying research: New perspectives and alternative methodologies. Introduction to the special issue. Journal of Community & Applied Social Psychology, 23, 1–6.
Dehue, F., Bolman, C., & Völlink, T. (2008). Cyberbullying: Youngsters’ experiences and parental perception. CyberPsychology & Behavior, 11, 217–223.
del Barco, B. L., Castaño, E. F., Bullón, F. F., & Carroza, T. G. (2012). Cyberbullying in a sample of secondary students: Modulating variables and social networks. Electronic Journal of Research in Educational Psychology, 10, 771–788.
Dempsey, A. G., Sulkowski, M. L., Nichols, R., & Storch, E. A. (2009). Differences between peer victimization in cyber and physical settings and associated psychosocial adjustment in early adolescence. Psychology in the Schools, 46, 962–972.
Didden, R., Scholte, R. H. J., Korzilius, H., De Moor, J. M. H., Vermeulen, A., O’Reilly, M., … Lancioni, G. E. (2009). Cyberbullying among students with intellectual and developmental disability in special education settings. Developmental Neurorehabilitation, 12, 146–151.
Erdur-Baker, Ö. (2010). Cyberbullying and its correlation to traditional bullying, gender and frequent and risky usage on internet-mediated communication tools. New Media & Society, 12, 109–125.
Fanti, K. A., Demetriou, A. G., & Hawa, V. V. (2012). A longitudinal study of cyberbullying examining risk and protective factors. European Journal of Developmental Psychology, 9, 168–181.
Fenaughty, J., & Harré, N. (2013). Factors associated with distressing electronic harassment and cyberbullying. Computers in Human Behavior, 29, 803–811.
Festl, R., & Quandt, T. (2013). Social relations and cyberbullying: The influence of individual and structural attributes on victimization and perpetration via the internet. Human Communication Research, 39, 101–126.
Fletcher, A., Fitzgerald-Yau, N., Jones, R., Allen, E., Viner, R. M., & Bonell, C. (2014). Brief report: Cyberbullying perpetration and its associations with socio-demographics, aggressive behaviour at school, and mental health outcomes. Journal of Adolescence, 37, 1393–1398.
Gahagan, K., Vaterlus, J. M., & Frost, L. R. (2016). College student cyberbullying on social networking sites: Conceptualization, prevalence, and perceived bystander responsibility. Computers in Human Behavior, 55, 1097–1105.
Garaigordobil, M. (2015). Cyberbullying in adolescents and youth in the Basque country: Prevalence of cybervictims, cyberaggressors, and cyberobservers. Journal of Youth Studies, 18, 569–582.
Gofin, R., & Avitzour, M. (2012). Traditional versus internet bullying in junior high school students. Maternal and Child Health Journal, 16, 1625–1635.
Gomez-Garbiello, C., Shariff, S., McConnel, M., & Talwar, V. (2012). Adolescents’ evaluation of cyberbullying events. Alberta Journal of Educational Research, 58, 474–477.
Görzig, A., & Frumkin, L. A. (2013). Cyberbullying experiences on-the-go: When social media can become distressing. Cyberpsychology: Journal of Psychosocial Research on Cyberspace, 7, article 4.
Gradinger, P., Strochmeier, D., & Spiel, C. (2009). Traditional bullying and cyberbullying: Identification of risk groups for adjustment problems. Zeitschrift für Psychologie/Journal of Psychology, 217, 205–213.
Gradinger, P., Strohmeier, D., & Spiel, C. (2010). Definition and measurement of cyberbullying. Cyberpsychology: Journal of Psychosocial Research on Cyberspace, 4, 1–13.
Hinduja, S., & Patchin, J. W. (2008). Personal information of adolescents on the Internet: A quantitative content analysis of MySpace. Journal of Adolescence, 31, 125–146.
Holfeld, B., & Leadbeater, B. J. (2015). The nature and frequency of cyber bullying behaviors and victimization experiences in young Canadian children. Canadian Journal of School Psychology, 30, 116–135.
Juvonen, J., & Gross, E. F. (2008). Extending the school grounds?—Bullying experiences in cyberspace. Journal of School Health, 78, 496–505.
Katzer, C., Fetchenhauer, D., & Belschak, F. (2009). Cyberbullying: Who are the victims? A comparison of victimization in internet chatrooms and victimization in school. Journal of Media Psychology, 21, 25–36.
Kite, S. L., Gable, R., & Filippelli, L. (2010). Assessing middle school students’ knowledge of conduct and consequences and their behaviours regarding the use of social networking sites. The Clearing House, 83, 158–163.
Kokkinos, C. M., Balzidis, E., & Xynogala, D. (2016). Prevalence and personality correlates of Facebook bullying among university students. Computers in Human Behavior, 55, 840–850.
König, A., Gollwitzer, M., & Steffgen, G. (2010). Cyberbullying as an act of revenge? Australian Journal of Guidance & Counselling, 20, 210–224.
Kowalski, R. M., Giumetti, G. W., Schroeder, A. N., & Lattanner, M. R. (2014). Bulling in the digital age: A critical review and meta-analysis of cyberbullying research among youth. Psychological Bulletin, 140, 1073–1137.
Kowalski, R. M., & Limber, S. P. (2007). Electronic bullying among middle school students. Journal of Adolescent Health, 41, S22–S30.
Kubiszewksi, V., Fontaine, R., Potard, C., & Auzoult, L. (2015). Does cyberbullying overlap with school bullying when taking modality of involvement into account? Computers in Human Behavior, 43, 49–57.
Kwan, G. C. E., & Skoric, M. M. (2013). Facebook bullying: An extension of battles in school. Computers in Human Behavior, 29, 16–25.
Låftman, S. B., Modin, B., & Östberg, V. (2013). Cyberbullying and subjective health. A largescale study of students in Stockholm, Sweden. Children and Youth Services Review, 35, 112–119.
Lam, L. T., Cheng, Z., & Liu, X. (2013). Violent online games exposure and cyberbullying/victimization among adolescents. Cyberpsychology, Behavior, and Social Networking, 16, 159–164.
Lapidot-Lefler, N., & Dolev-Cohen, M. (2015). Comparing cyberbullying and school bullying among school students: Prevalence, gender, and grade level differences. Social Psychology of Education, 18, 1–6.
Lemstra, M., Rogers, M., Redgate, L., Garner, M., & Moraros, J. (2011). Prevalence, risk indicators and outcomes of bullying among On-Reserve First Nations youth. Canadian Journal of Public Health, 102, 462–466.
Li, Q. (2006). Cyberbullying in schools: A research of gender differences. School Psychology International, 27, 157–170.
Li, Q. (2007a). New bottle but old wine: A research of cyberbullying in schools. Computers in Human Behavior, 23, 1777–1791.
Li, Q. (2007b). Bullying in the new playground: Research into cyberbullying and cyber victimization. Australasian Journal of Educational Technology, 23, 435–454.
Li, Q. (2008). A cross-cultural comparison of adolescents’ experience related to cyberbullying. Educational Research, 50, 223–234.
MacDonald, C. D., & Roberts-Pittman, B. (2010). Cyberbullying among college students: Prevalence and demographic differences. Procedia Social and Behavioral Sciences, 9, 2003–2009.
Mark, L., & Ratliffe, K. T. (2011). Cyber worlds: New playgrounds for bullying. Computers in the Schools, 28, 92–116.
Marsh, L., McGee, R., Nada-Raja, S., & Williams, S. (2010). Brief report: Text bullying and traditional bullying among New Zealand secondary school students. Journal of Adolescence, 33, 237–240.
Menesini, E., & Nocentini, A. (2009). Cyberbullying definition and measurement: Some critical considerations. Zeitschrift für Psychologie/Journal of Psychology, 217, 230–232.
Menesini, E., Nocentini, A., & Calussi, P. (2011). The measurement of cyberbullying: Dimensional structure and relative item severity and discrimination. Cyberpsychology, Behavior, and Social Networking, 14, 267–274.
Mesch, G. S. (2009). Parental mediation, online activities, and cyberbullying. CyberPsychology & Behavior, 12, 387–393.
Metwally, S., & Betts, L. R. (2015, May). “It won’t happen to me”—The Third Person Effect and Cyberbullying. Poster presented at the British Psychological Society Annual Conference, Liverpool.
Mishna, F., Saini, M., & Solomon, S. (2009). Ongoing and online: Children and youth’s perceptions of cyber bullying. Children and Youth Services Review, 31, 1222–1228.
Modecki, K. L., Barber, B. L., & Vernon, L. (2013). Mapping developmental precursors of cyber-aggression: Trajectories of risk predict perpetration and victimization. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 42, 651–661.
Monks, C. P., Robinson, S., & Worlidge, P. (2012). The emergence of cyberbullying: A survey of primary school pupils’ perceptions and experiences. School Psychology International, 33, 477–491.
Moore, P. M., Huebner, E. S., & Hills, K. J. (2012). Electronic bullying and cybervictimization and life satisfaction in middle school students. Social Indicators Research, 107, 429–447.
Morgan, H. (2012). What teachers and schools can do to control the growing problem of school bullying. The Clearing House, 85, 174–178.
Navarro, R., Yubero, S., Larraňaga, E., & Martínez, V. (2012). Children’s cyberbullying victimization: Associations with social anxiety and social competence in a Spanish sample. Child Indicators Research, 5, 281–295.
Olenik-Shemesh, D., Heiman, T., & Eden, S. (2012). Cyberbullying victimisation in adolescence: Relationships with loneliness and depressive mood. Emotional and Behavioural Difficulties, 17, 361–374.
Olweus, D. (2012a). Cyberbullying: An overrated phenomenon? European Journal of Developmental Psychology, 9, 520–538.
Olweus, D. (2012b). Comments on cyberbullying: A rejoinder. European Journal of Developmental Psychology, 9, 559–568.
Olweus, D. (2013). School bullying: Development and some important challenges. Annual Review of Clinical Psychology, 9, 751–780.
Ortega, R., Calmaestra, J., & Mora-Merchán, J. (2008). Cyberbullying. International Journal of Psychology and Psychological Therapy, 8, 183–192.
Ortega, R., Elipe, P., Moran-Merchán, J. A., Genta, M. L., Brighi, A., Guraini, A., … Tippett, A. (2009). The emotional impact of bullying and cyberbullying on victims: A European cross-national study. Aggressive Behavior, 38, 342–356.
Pabian, S., & Vandebosch, H. (2014). Using the theory of planned behaviour to understand cyberbullying: The importance of beliefs for developing interventions. European Journal of Developmental Psychology, 11, 463–477.
Patchin, J. W., & Hinduja, S. (2006). Bullies move beyond the schoolyard: A preliminary look at cyberbullying. Youth Violence and Juvenile Justice, 4, 148–169.
Paullet, K., & Pinchot, J. (2014). Behind the screen where today’s bully plays: Perceptions of college students on cyberbullying. Journal of Information Systems Education, 25, 63–69.
Pedersen, S. (2013). UK young adults’ safety awareness online—Is it a ‘girl’ thing? Journal of Youth Studies, 16, 404–419.
Pelfrey, W. V., Jr., & Weber, N. L. (2013). Keyboard gangsters: Analysis of incidence and correlates of cyberbullying in a large urban student population. Deviant Behavior, 34, 68–84.
Popović-Ćitić, B., Djurić, S., & Cvetković, V. (2011). The prevalence of cyberbullying among adolescents: A case study of middle schools in Serbia. School Psychology International, 32, 412–424.
Price, M., Chin, M. A., Higa-McMillan, C., Kim, S., & Frueh, B. C. (2013). Prevalence and internalizing problems of ethnoracially diverse victims of traditional and cyber bullying. School Mental Health, 5, 183–191.
Pyzalski, J. (2012). From cyberbullying to electronic aggression: Typology of the phenomenon. Emotional and Behavioural Difficulties, 17, 305–317.
Raskauskas, J., & Stoltz, A. D. (2007). Involvement in traditional and electronic bullying among adolescents. Developmental Psychology, 43, 564–575.
Reeckman, B., & Cannard, L. (2009). Cyberbullying: A TAFE perspective. Youth Studies Australia, 28, 41–49.
Sakellariou, T., Carroll, A., & Houghton, S. (2012). Rates of cyber cybervictimization and bullying among male Australian primary and high school students. School Psychology International, 33, 533–549.
Schenk, A. M., & Fremouw, W. J. (2012). Prevalence, psychological impact, and coping of cyberbully cybervictims among college students. Journal of School Violence, 11, 21–37.
Schneider, S. K., O’Donnell, L., Stueve, A., & Coulter, R. W. S. (2012). Cyberbullying, school bullying, and psychological distress: A regional census of high school students. American Journal of Public Health, 102, 171–177.
Schultze-Krumbholz, A., & Scheithauer, H. (2009). Social-behavioral correlates of cyberbullying in a German student sample. Zeitschrift für Psychologie/Journal of Psychology, 217, 224–226.
Schultze-Krumbholz, A., Göbel, K., Scheithauer, H., Brighi, A., Guarini, A., … Smith, P. K. (2015). A comparison of classification approaches for cyberbulling and traditional bullying using data from six European countries. Journal of School Violence, 14, 47–65.
Selkie, E. M., Kota, R., Chan, Y.-F., & Moreno, M. (2015). Cyberbullying, depression, and problem alcohol use in female college students: A multisite study. Cyberpsychology, Behavior, and Social Networking, 18, 79–86.
Sengupta, A., & Chaudhuri, A. (2011). Are social networking sites a source of online harassment for teens? Evidence from survey data. Children and Youth Service Review, 33, 284–290.
Ševčíková, A., & Šmahel, D. (2009). Online harassment and cyberbullying in the Czech Republic: Comparison across age groups. Zeitschrift für Psychologie/Journal of Psychology, 217, 227–229.
Slonje, R., Smith, P. K., & Frisén, A. (2013). The nature of cyberbullying, and strategies for prevention. Computers in Human Behavior, 29, 26–32.
Smith, P. K. (2014). Understanding school bullying: Its nature & prevention strategies. London: Sage.
Smith, P., Mahdavi, J., Carvalho, M., Fisher, S., Russell, S., & Tippett, N. (2008). Cyberbullying: Its nature and impact in secondary school pupils. The Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 49, 376–385.
Spenser, K. A., & Betts, L. R. (2014, May). “People think it’s a harmless joke when really it could be hurting someone”: Young people’s experiences of cyber bullying. Poster presented at the British Psychological Society Annual Conference, International Convention Centre, Birmingham.
Thomas, S. P. (2006). From the editor—The phenomenon of cyberbullying. Issues in Mental Health Nursing, 27, 1015–1016.
Turan, N., Polat, O., Karapirli, M., Uysal, C., & Turan, S. G. (2011). The new violence type of the era: Cyber bullying among university students. Neurology, Psychiatry and Brian Research, 17, 21–26.
Vandebosch, H., & van Cleemput, K. (2009). Cyberbullying among youngsters: Profiles of bullies and victims. New Media & Society, 11, 1349–1371.
Vieno, A., Gini, G., & Santinello, M. (2011). Different forms of bullying and their association to smoking and drinking behavior in Italian adolescents. Journal of School Health, 81, 393–399.
Wachs, S. (2012). Moral disengagement and emotional and social difficulties in bullying and cyberbullying: Differences by participant role. Emotional and Behavioural Difficulties, 17, 347–360.
Wade, A., & Beran, T. (2011). Cyberbullying: The new era of bullying. Canadian Journal of School Psychology, 26, 44–61.
Walrave, M., & Heirman, W. (2011). Cyberbullying: Predicting cybervictimization and cyberaggression. Children & Society, 25, 59–72.
Wang, J., Iannotti, R. J., & Luk, J. W. (2012). Patterns of adolescent bullying behaviours: Physical, verbal, exclusion, rumor, and cyber. Journal of School Psychology, 50, 521–534.
Wang, J., Iannotti, R. J., & Nansel, T. R. (2009). School bullying among adolescents in the United States: Physical, verbal, relational, and cyber. Journal of Adolescent Health, 45, 368–375.
Wegge, D., Vandebosch, H., & Eggermont, S. (2014). Who bullies whom online: A social network analysis of cyberbullying in a school context. Communications, 39, 415–433.
Wensley, K., & Campbell, M. (2012). Heterosexual and nonhetrosexual young university students’ involvement in traditional and cyber forms of bullying. Cyberpsychology, Behavior, and Social Networking, 15, 649–654.
West, D. (2015). An investigation into the prevalence of cyberbullying among students aged 16–19 in post-compulsory education. Research in Post-Compulsory Education, 20, 96–112.
Whittaker, E., & Kowalski, R. M. (2015). Cyberbullying via social media. Journal of School Violence, 14, 11–29.
Williams, K. R., & Guerra, N. G. (2007). Prevalence and predictors of internet bullying. Journal of Adolescent Health, 41, S14–S21.
Wolak, J., Mitchell, K. J., & Finkelhor, D. (2007). Does online harassment constitute bullying? An exploration of online harassment by known peers and online-only contacts. Journal of Adolescent Health, 41, S51–S58.
Wright, M. F., & Li, Y. (2013). Normative beliefs about aggression and cyber aggression among young adults: A longitudinal investigation. Aggressive Behavior, 39, 161–170.
Wright, V. H., Burnham, J. J., Inman, C. T., & Ogorchock, H. N. (2009). Cyberbullying: Using virtual scenarios to educate and raise awareness. Journal of Computing in Teacher Education, 26, 35–41.
Xiao, B. S., & Wong, Y. M. (2013). Cyber-bullying among university students: An empirical investigation from the social cognitive perspective. International Journal of Business and Information, 8, 34–69.
Ybarra, M. L. (2003). Linkages between depressive symptomatology and internet harassment among young regular internet users. CyberPsychology & Behavior, 7, 247–257.
Ybarra, M. L., Diener-West, M., & Leaf, P. J. (2007). Examining the overlap in internet harassment and school bullying: Implications for school intervention. Journal of Adolescent Health, 41, S42–S50.
Ybarra, M. L., & Mitchell, K. J. (2004). Online aggressors/targets, aggressors, and targets: A comparison of associated youth characteristics. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 45, 1308–1316.
Yilmaz, H. (2011). Cyberbullying in Turkish middle schools: An exploratory study. School Psychology International, 32, 645–654.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Copyright information
© 2016 The Author(s)
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Betts, L.R. (2016). Prevalence. In: Cyberbullying. Palgrave Studies in Cyberpsychology. Palgrave Pivot, London. https://doi.org/10.1057/978-1-137-50009-0_4
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1057/978-1-137-50009-0_4
Published:
Publisher Name: Palgrave Pivot, London
Print ISBN: 978-1-137-50008-3
Online ISBN: 978-1-137-50009-0
eBook Packages: Behavioral Science and PsychologyBehavioral Science and Psychology (R0)