Abstract
Ireland’s Traveller and Roma populations, although distinct, face a number of shared challenges, the most concerning of which is deep-rooted and widespread racism. At the same time however, there is little documented evidence of hate crime against these two communities. This chapter addresses the paucity of data on anti-Traveller and anti-Roma hate crime with specific reference to the Republic of Ireland. Following a profile of the two communities and a discussion of anti-Traveller and anti-Roma racism in Irish society, we focus on examining the possibilities for Traveller and Roma visibility offered by official and civil society hate crime recording mechanisms. The remainder of the chapter discusses the particular relevance of a number of recognised and less acknowledged obstacles to reporting for Traveller and Roma communities in Ireland. The chapter concludes that the paucity of documentation of anti-Traveller and anti-Roma hate crime in Ireland is both a function of, and contributes to, extreme structural inequality.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
Notes
- 1.
Travellers often refer to the majority population as ‘settled people’. Many problematise the use of the term ‘settled Traveller’ to refer to Travellers who are not actively nomadic, arguing that it is a divisive oxymoron; as Liégeois, J.P. (1994, p. 79) argues, ‘Nomadism is more a state of mind than a state of fact’.
- 2.
‘Report on the Commission on Itinerancy’ (Dublin, 1963).
- 3.
Concerns remain about the accuracy of the census figures for the Traveller population. Traveller organisations contend that the numbers identifying as Traveller in the national census represent a significant undercount (Pavee Point 2015).
- 4.
See, for example, TV programmes such as Bogus Beggars and Traveller Feuds.
- 5.
Fianna Fail and Fine Gael are Ireland’s two most prominent mainstream parliamentary parties.
- 6.
A highly offensive racial slur deployed against Travellers.
- 7.
See, for example, newspaper headlines such as ‘First pictures of Gypsy couple “who snatched little Maria” as they…face up to 20 years in prison’ (Spencer et al. 2013).
- 8.
The child’s blonde hair, green eyes and pale skin complexion were considered sufficient evidence to allow Greek police arrest a Roma couple for her abduction. When subsequent DNA testing found Maria to be the biological daughter of a Roma family living in Bulgaria, who had willingly given her up for adoption, the media quickly lost interest.
- 9.
As the Garda Inspectorate (2014) did not specifically recommend the introduction of an anti-Roma motivation marker, this inclusion signifies a growing awareness of the potential for anti-Roma crime on the part of An Garda Síochána which is to be welcomed and which may reflect an assimilation of lessons from the events recounted in Logan (2014b).
- 10.
Some training did continue in this period, including at least one training session specifically addressing Roma culture.
References
Acton, T., & O’hAodha, M. (2006). Counter-hegemony and the Irish ‘Other’. Newcastle upon Tyne: Cambridge Scholars Press.
All Ireland Traveller Health Study Team. (2010). All Ireland Traveller Health study: Our Geels. Dublin: University College.
Bartrop, P. R., & Jacobs, S. L. (2015). Modern genocide: The definitive resource and document collection (Vol. 1). Oxford: ABC-CLIO.
Blood of the Travellers. (2011). RTE 1. 22 May, 21.30 hrs.
Bhreatnach, A. (2006). Becoming conspicuous: Irish Travellers, society and the state 1922–70. Dublin: UCD Press.
Brennan, C. (2016). Of course I’m a victim – I’m not allowed to live according to the culture that I want. The Journal ie, [online]. Available: http://www.thejournal.ie/john-connors-late-late-2669006-Mar2016/.
British-Irish Parliamentary Assembly, Committee D (2014). Travellers, Gypsies and Roma: access to public services and community relations. http://www.britishirish.org/assets/CommitteeDRomaTravellerReport.pdf.
Chrisafis, A. (2005, November 26). Ireland’s nomads expose a racial divide. Guardian [Online]. Available: http://www.theguardian.com/world/2005/nov/26/ireland. Accessed 4 April 2016.
Citizen’s Information. (2016). Equality in the workplace. http://www.citizensinformation.ie/en/employment/equality_in_work/equality_in_the_workplace.html. Accessed 2 May.
Collins, M. (2012). Travellers as an ethnic group. In J. Heneghan, M. Moriarty, & M. O’ Haodha (Eds.), Travellers and the settled community: A shared future (pp. 3–11). Dublin: Liffey Press.
Collins, M. (2013). A road less travelled. Garda Review [online]. Available: http://www.gardareview.ie/index.php/a-road-less-travelled/.
Commission on Itinerancy. (1963). Report of the Commission on Itinerancy. Dublin: The Stationery Office.
Connolly, P. (2002) Race and Racism in Northern Ireland: A Review of the Research Evidence. Belfast: OFMDFM.
Cosaint. (2012). Gypsy crime and Antiziganism in Ireland [online]. Available: https://cosaint.wordpress.com/2012/12/28/gypsy-crime-and-antiziganism-in-ireland/. Accessed 1 April 2016.
Council of Europe. (2011). The Council of Europe: Protecting the Rights of Roma. Strasbourg: Council of Europe.
Crépeau, F. (2014). We need ‘firewalls’ between public services and immigration enforcement. http://oppenheimer.mcgill.ca/We-need-firewalls-between-public.
CSO. (2012). Profile 7 Religion, Ethnicity and Irish Travellers – Ethnic and Cultural Background in Ireland [Online]. Available: http://www.cso.ie/en/index.html. Accessed 2 April 2016.
Delaney, P. (2003). A sense of place: Travellers, representation, and Irish culture. The Republic, a Journal of Contemporary and Historical Debate, 3, 79–89.
Donegal Democrat. (2013). Councillors won’t face any charges. http://www.donegaldemocrat.ie/news/donegal-news/41172/Councillors-won-t-face-any-charges.html.
Donegal Travellers Project. (2013). Challenges faced by the Roma in Ireland [Online]. Available: http://donegaltravellersproject.org/2013/06/21/challenges-faced-by-the-roma-in-ireland/. Accessed 2 April 2016.
Doyle, D. (2011). Last night’s TV: Bogus Beggars. Irish Independent. www.independent.ie/entertainment/tv-radio/last-nights-tv-bogus-beggars-26762007.html.
Drummond, A. (2007). Keep on moving, don’t stop now: Anti-trespass laws on the Island of Ireland. In M. Hayes & T. Acton (Eds.), Travellers, Gypsies, Roma: The Demonisation of Difference (pp. 37–52). Cambridge Scholars Publishing, ISBN 9781847181275.
ERRC. (2006). Roma rights [online]. Available: http://www.errc.org/popup-article-view.php?article_id=2566. Accessed 13 April 2005.
Eurobarometer. (2012). Discrimination in the EU in 2012. European Commission [online]. Available: http://ec.europa.eu/public_opinion/archives/ebs/ebs_393_en.pdf.
European Union Agency for Fundamental Rights. (2009). European Union Minorities and Discrimination Survey: Data in Focus Report – The Roma. Brussels: European Union. http://fra.europa.eu/sites/default/files/fra_uploads/413-EU-MIDIS_ROMA_EN.pdf.
Fanning, B. (2002). Racism and social change in the Republic of Ireland. Manchester: University of Manchester Press.
Farrell, F., & Watt, P. (2001). Responding to racism in Ireland. Dublin: Veritas.
Feldman, A., Ladislas Ndakengerwa, D., Nolan, A., & Frese, C. (2005). A North-South comparison of the role of immigrant: ‘New’ minority ethnic-led community and voluntary sector organisations. http://www.ucd.ie/mcri/report_compiled.pdf.
Fekete, L. 2014. Europe against the Roma. Race & Class, 55(3), 60–70.
Galway Traveller Movement. (2006). Stall Anoishe! Minceirs Whiden Stop Here! Travellers Talking. http://gtmtrav.ie/wp-content/uploads/2014/09/Stall-Anoishe-Analysing-the-reality-for-Travellers-in-Galway-City.pdf.
Garda Inspectorate. (2014). Crime Investigation [online]. Available: http://www.gsinsp.ie/en/GSINSP/Crime%20Investigation%20-%20Full%20Report.pdf/Files/Crime%20Investigation%20-%20Full%20Report.pdf.
Gerstenfeld, P.B. (2013). Hate crimes, causes, controls and controversies (3rd edn.). London: Sage.
Gmelch, SB. & Gmelch, G. (1976). The emergence of an ethnic group: The Irish Tinkers. Anthropological Quarterly, 49(4), 225–238.
Hall, N. (2015). Understanding hate crimes: Perspectives from the wider social sciences. In N. Hall, A. Corb, P. Giannasi, J. G. D. Grieve, & N. Lawrence (Eds.), The Routledge international handbook on hate crime (pp. 81–92). London: Routledge.
Hancock, I. (2000). The emergence of Romani as a Koïné outside of India. In D. Kendrick, & T.A. Acton (Eds.), Scholarship and the Gypsy Struggle: Commitment in Romani Studies (pp. 1–13). Hertfordshire/Great Britain: University of Hertfordshire Press.
Haynes, A., Joyce, S., & Schweppe, J.J. et al. (2015a). Pervasive racism: How public and political responses to a recent tragedy in Ireland’s Traveller community were shaped by anti-Traveller hostility. International Network for Hate Studies.: www.internationalhatestudies.com/pervasive-racism-public-political-responses-recent-tragedy-irelands-traveller-community-shaped-anti-traveller-hostility/.
Haynes, A., Schweppe, J., Carr, J., Carmody, N., & Enright, S. (2015b). Out of the Shadows, legislating for hate crime in Ireland. https://ulir.ul.ie/handle/10344/4751.
Helleiner, J. (2003). Racism and the politics of culture: Irish Travellers. Toronto: University of Toronto Press.
Hera, G. (2015). The relationship between the Roma and the police: A Roma perspective. Policing and Society, 1–15.
Heritz, J. (2012). The inclusion of atypical minorities in public policy: Urban aboriginal people in Canada and Travellers in Ireland. (PhD, Unpublished) McMaster University [online]. Available: https://macsphere.mcmaster.ca/bitstream/11375/12419/1/fulltext.pdf.
Irish Independent. (2016). Up to 2,000 Travellers at risk of eviction. campaigners warn. www.independent.ie/irish-news/up-to-2000-travellers-at-risk-of-eviction-campaigners-warn-34390641.html.
Irish Statue Book. (1989). Prohibition of incitement to Hatred Act, Dublin [online]. Available http://www.irishstatutebook.ie/1989/en/act/pub/0019/.
Irish Statue Book. (2002). Housing (miscellaneous provisions) act, Dublin [online]. Available: http://www.irishstatutebook.ie/2002/en/act/pub/0009/index.html.
Irish Traveller Movement. (2009). Ethnicity a key to equality [online]. Available: http://www.itmtrav.ie/keyissues/myview_new/46.
Irish Traveller Movement. (2013). Review of the Commission of Itinerancy Report. Dublin [online]. Available: http://itmtrav.ie/uploads/publication/ITM_Review_of_the_1963_Commission_on_Itinerancy.pdf.
Jacobs, J.B., & Potter, K. (1998). Hate crimes: Criminal law and identity politics. New York: Oxford University Press.
James, Z. 2013. ‘Offenders or victims?: An exploration of Gypsies and Travellers as a policing paradox’. In C. Phillips (Ed.), New Directions in Race, Ethnicity and Crime (pp. 139–177). London: Routledge, 2013.
James, Z. (2015). Hate crimes against Gypsies, Travellers and Roma in Europe. In N. Hall, A. Corb, P. Giannasi, J.G.D. Grieve, & N. Lawrence (Eds.), The Routledge international handbook on hate crime (pp. 237–248). London: Routledge.
Kalaydjieva, L., Gresham, D., & Calafell, F. (2001). Genetic studies of the Roma (gypsies): A review. BMC Medical Genetics, 2(5). doi:10.1186/1471-2350-2-5.
Lesovitch, L. (2005). Roma educational needs in Ireland context and challenges. Dublin: City of Dublin VEC.
Liégeois, J.P. (1994). Roma, Gypsies, Travellers. Strasbourg: Council of Europe.
Liégeois, J.P. (2012). The council of Europe and Roma: 40 years of action. Strasbourg: Council of Europe.
Logan, E. (2014a, July 2). Lessons from cases of Roma children taken into care should form part of policing reforms. Irish Times [Online]. Available: http://www.irishtimes.com/news/social-affairs/lessons-from-cases-of-roma-children-taken-into-care-should-form-part-of-policing-reforms-1.1851755. Accessed 12 April 2016.
Logan, E. (2014b). Garda Siochána Act 2005 (Section 42) (Special Inquiries Relating to Garda Siochána) Order 2013. http://www.justice.ie/en/JELR/Emily%20Logan%20report.pdf/Files/Emily%20Logan%20report.pdf.
Loyal, S., & Mulcahy, A. (2001). Racism in Ireland: The views of Black and Ethnic minorities. Dublin: Amnesty International.
Maas, W. (2013). Democratic citizenship and the free movement of people. Boston: Martinus Nijhoff.
MABS. (2011). Issues of personal finance within the Traveller community, [online]. Available: https://www.mabs.ie/fileadmin/user_upload/documents/Reports___Submissions/MABS_Reports_Documentation/Travellers_and_Personal_Finance.pdf.
Mac Greíl, M. (2010). Emancipation of the Travelling People. Maynooth: National University of Ireland Maynooth.
Mac Gréil, M. (2011). Pluralism and diversity in Ireland. Dublin: The Columba Press.
MacLaughlin, J. (1999). Nation-building, social closure and anti-Traveller racism in Ireland. Sociology, 33(1), 129–151.
Mail Online. (2013). First pictures of Gypsy couple ‘who snatched little Maria’ as they appear in court accused of abduction and face up to 20 years in prison, Mail Online October 21st [online]. Available: http://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-2470062/Blonde-Angel-Maria-Gypsy-couple-court-abduction-charges.html#ixzz45gEs2vmP. Accessed 25 March 2016.
Marron, A., Joyce, A., Carr, J., Devereux, E., Breen, M., Power, M., & Haynes, A. (2016). Print media framings of those Blonde Roma children. In A. Haynes, M. J. Power, E. Devereux, A. Dillane, & J. Carr (Eds.), Public and political discourses of migration (pp. 117–134). London: Rowman and Littlefield International.
Mason, G. (2015). Legislating against hate. In N. Hall, A. Corb, P. Giannasi, J.G.D. Grieve, N. Lawrence (Eds.), The Routledge international handbook on hate crime (pp. 59–68). London: Routledge.
McCann, M., O’Siochain, S., & Ruane, J. (Eds.). (1994). Irish Travellers: Culture and Ethnicity. Belfast: Institute of Irish Studies.
McMahon, A. (2013). Travellers ‘wreck homes’, says councillor. Irish Times. http://www.irishtimes.com/news/travellers-wreck-homes-says-councillor-1.962732.
McMahon, L. (2015). Irish Travellers – the reality of racism. Socialist Worker. www.socialistworkeronline.net/irish-travellers-the-reality-of-racism/.
McVeigh, R. (1997). Theorising sedentarism: The roots of anti-ziganism. In T.A. Acton (Ed.), Gypsy Politics and Traveller Identity (pp. 7–25). Hertfordshire: Hertfordshire University Press.
McVeigh, R. (2007). Ethnicity denial and racism: The case of the government of Ireland against Irish Travellers. Translocations: The Irish Migration, Race and Social Transformation, 2(1), 90–133.
McVeigh, R. (2008). The ‘final solution’: Reformism, ethnicity denial and the politics of anti-Travellerism in Ireland. Social Policy and Society, 7(1), 91–102.
McVeigh, R. (2012). Anti-Traveller racism and ethnicity denial, paper presented at the National Traveller Monitoring Advisory Committee Conference: Ethnicity and Travellers an Exploration, Dublin Castle, 27 Sept 2012 [online], available: http://itmtrav.ie/keyissues/myview_new/87.
Mitchell, J. (2011). ‘Race’, Nation and Belonging in Ireland. Irish Journal of Applied Social Studies, 11(1), Article 1. Available at: http://arrow.dit.ie/ijass/vol11/iss1/1.
Mulcahy, A., & O’Mahony, E. (2005). Policing and social marginalisation in Ireland. Combat Poverty Agency Work Paper 05/02.
Murphy, B. (2015, November 4). Rural crime victim padraig nally brands government’s plan to blitz burglars as ‘bulls**t’. The Irish Mirror [online]. Available: http://www.irishmirror.ie/news/irish-news/crime/rural-crime-victim-padraig-nally-6761715.
NASC. (2013). In from the margins: Roma in Ireland: addressing the structural discrimination of the Roma community in Ireland. http://www.nascireland.org/wp-content/uploads/2013/05/NASC-ROMA-REPORT.pdf.
NASC. (2016). Roma in Ireland [Online]. Available: http://www.nascireland.org/roma-in-ireland/. Accessed 2 April 2016.
NCCRI. (2004). The importance of recognising Travellers as an ethnic group: Submission to the Joint Oireachtas Committee on Human Rights.
O’Connell, H. (2013). Martin ‘very annoyed’ by Fianna Fáil councillor’s call to ‘segregate’ Travellers, The Jounal.ie, [online]. Available: http://www.thejournal.ie/micheal-martin-travellers-donegal-councillor-795595-Feb2013/.
O’Faherty, J. (2015). Travellers say Kenny’s comments at funeral ‘disgraceful’. Irish News. http://www.independent.ie/irish-news/travellers-say-kennys-comments-at-funeral-disgraceful-34151249.html.
O’hAodha, M. (2004). A counter-cultural group? A discourse of ‘difference’ concerning the image of the Irish Traveller. Ulster Folklife, 50, 51–70.
O’Halloran, M. (2015). Labour minister and TD absent for vote on Traveller ethnicity. Irish Times. http://www.irishtimes.com/news/politics/oireachtas/labour-minister-and-td-absent-for-vote-on-traveller-ethnicity-1.2417611.
O’Keeffe, C. (2012). Kidnapped, gang raped, tortured, shot and dumped, but no one cares, Irish Examiner, March 16th, [Online]. Available: http://www.irishexaminer.com/ireland/icrime/kidnapped-gang-raped-tortured-shot-and-dumped-but-no-one-cares-187340.html. Accessed 2 April 2016.
O’Regan, M. (2003). McDowell rules out identity cards. The Irish Times, June 16 [online]. Available: http://www.irishtimes.com/news/mcdowell-rules-out-identity-cards-1.360761.
ODIHR. (2009). Preventing and responding to hate crime: SA resource guide for NGOs in the OSCE region. Warsaw: ODIHR.
ODIHR. (2014). Hate crime data-collection and monitoring mechanisms a practical guide. Warsaw: ODIHR/OSCE.
ODIHR. (2016). Bias against Roma and Sinti. http://hatecrime.osce.org/what-hate-crime/bias-against-roma-and-sinti.
Ombudsman for Children. (2014). Garda Síochána Act 2005 (Section 42) (Special Inquiries relating to Garda Síochána) Order 2013. http://specialinquiry.ie/wp-content/uploads/2014/06/Special-Inquiry-July-2014.pdf.
Pavee Point. (2011). Towards a National Traveller and Roma Integration Strategy 2020. http://www.paveepoint.ie/towards-a-national-traveller-and-roma-integration-strategy/.
Pavee point. (2013). Roma and Education. www.paveepoint.ie/wp-content/uploads/2013/11/Roma-and-Education.pdf.
Pavee Point. (2014). Roma and Education. http://www.paveepoint.ie/wp-content/uploads/2013/11/Roma-and-Education.pdf.
Pavee Point. (2015). Towards a National Traveller and Roma Integration Strategy 2020 [online]. Available: http://www.paveepoint.ie/wp-content/uploads/2015/04/Towards-a-National-Traveller-and-Roma-Integration-Strategy-2020.pdf.
Pavee Point (2016a) Irish Travellers and Roma [online]. Available: http://www.paveepoint.ie/irish-travellers-and-roma/. Accessed 10 April 2016.
Pavee Point. (2016b). Evicting Travellers Solves Nothing. http://www.paveepoint.ie/evicting-travellers-solves-nothing/. Accessed 3 May.
Perry, B. (2003). Where do we go from here? Researching Hate Crime. Internet Journal of Criminology [online]. Available: http://www.internetjournalofcriminology.com/where%20do%20we%20go%20from%20here.%20researching%20hate%20crime.pdf.
Perry, B. (2009). ‘‘There’s just places ya’ don’t wanna go’: The segregating impact of hate crime against Native Americans’. Contemporary Justice Review: Issues in Criminal, Social, and Restorative Justice, 12(4), 401–418.
Pietarinen, K. (2011). Roma and Traveller Inclusion in Europe. Green Questions and Answers. gef.eu/fileadmin/user_upload/.../GEF-10-11_Roma_inclusion_final_for_web.pdf.
PILA. (2011). Irish district court dismisses Traveller Facebook hate speech case October Bulletin [online]. Available: http://www.pila.ie/bulletin/2011/october/5-october-2011/irish-district-court-dismisses-traveller-facebook-hate-speech-case/.
Pivot, M. (2013). Time to ‘End Silence’ on history of Roma suffering. http://enarireland.org/end-silence-on-history-of-roma-suffering/.
Popescu, D.E. (2014). Moral exclusion and blaming the victim: The delegitimising role of antiziganism. In T. Agarin (Ed.), When Stereotype Meets Prejudice: Antiziganism in European Societies (pp. 171–200). Stuttgart Germany: Ibidem Press.
Raidió Teilifís Éireann. (2011). Blood of the Travellers. Dublin: Scratch Films Production.
Reilly, J. (2005, November 27). It was the second shot that divided the nation. Irish Independent [Online]. Available: http://www.independent.ie/opinion/analysis/it-was-the-second-shot-that-divided-the-nation-26215223.html. Accessed 13 April 2016.
Rhode, D. L. (2004). Access to Justice. New York: Oxford University Press.
Schweppe, J., Haynes, A., & Carr, J. (2014). A life free from fear: Legislating for hate crime in Ireland: An NGO perspective. https://ulir.ul.ie/handle/10344/4485.
Sheridan, K. (2005, December 16). What chance has a Traveller offender before an Irish jury? Irish Times [Online]. Available: http://www.irishtimes.com/opinion/what-chance-has-a-traveller-offender-before-an-irish-jury-1.1039246. Accessed 4 April 2016.
Shiel, T. (2005, July 14). Gunshot wound to chest fatal, says pathologist. Irish Times [online]. http://www.irishtimes.com/news/gunshot-wound-to-chest-fatal-says-pathologist-1.467933. Accessed 7 April 2016.
Siggins, L. (2016). [online], available: http://www.irishtimes.com/news/ireland/irish-news/travellers-with-young-children-ordered-to-vacate-galway-site-1.2505960.
Sligo Today. (2013, February 12). Donegal arson attack under investigation. Sligo Today [online]. Available: http://www.sligotoday.ie/details.php?id=24380 http://www.thejournal.ie/micheal-martin-travellers-donegal-councillor-795595-Feb2013/.
Smylie, G. (2013). Donegal arson attack under investigation. Sligo Today News [online]. Available: http://www.sligotoday.ie/details.php?id=24380.
Spencer, B., Spencer, B., Evans, R., & Reilly, J. (2013). First pictures of Gypsy couple ‘who snatched little Maria’ as they appear in court accused of abduction and face up to 20 years in prison. Read more: http://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-2470062/Blonde-Angel-Maria-Gypsy-couple-court-abduction-charges.html#ixzz47Xa75A4m. Follow us: MailOnline on Twitter | DailyMail on Facebook’ Daily Mail.
Stationery Office. (1963). Report of the commission on Itinerancy. Dublin: Government Publication.
Strobl, S. (2014). Crime and Justice: The Roma in Europe and North America. International Journal of Comparative and Applied Criminal Justice, 38(2).
Taylor, B. (2014). Another darkness, another dawn: A history of gypsies, Roma and Travellers. London: Reaction Books.
Van Der Stoel, M. (2000). OSCE Report on the situation of Roma and Sinti in the OSCE Area (p. 8). OSCE: The Hague
Ward, T. (2014). A Wakeup Call for the Child Protection and Welfare System – Findings of Special Inquiry Report on Removal of Roma Children. http://www.childrensrights.ie/resources/wakeup-call-child-protection-and-welfare.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Copyright information
© 2017 The Author(s)
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Joyce, S., Kennedy, M., Haynes, A. (2017). Travellers and Roma in Ireland: Understanding Hate Crime Data through the Lens of Structural Inequality. In: Haynes, A., Schweppe, J., Taylor, S. (eds) Critical Perspectives on Hate Crime. Palgrave Hate Studies. Palgrave Macmillan, London. https://doi.org/10.1057/978-1-137-52667-0_18
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1057/978-1-137-52667-0_18
Published:
Publisher Name: Palgrave Macmillan, London
Print ISBN: 978-1-137-52666-3
Online ISBN: 978-1-137-52667-0
eBook Packages: Law and CriminologyLaw and Criminology (R0)