Download PDF
Gesundheitswesen 2003; 65(6): 378-392
DOI: 10.1055/s-2003-40311
Originalarbeit
© Georg Thieme Verlag Stuttgart · New York

Hochfrequente Strahlung und Gesundheit - eine Literaturanalyse

Radio and Microwave Frequency Radiation and Health - an Analysis of the LiteratureM. Röösli1, 2 , R. Rapp1 , C. Braun-Fahrländer1
  • 1Institut für Sozial- und Präventivmedizin der Universität Basel
  • 2Institut für Sozial- und Präventivmedizin der Universität Bern
Further Information

Publication History

Publication Date:
01 July 2003 (online)

Also available at
    Permissions and Reprints

Zusammenfassung

Ziel dieser Arbeit ist die Darstellung des gegenwärtigen wissenschaftlichen Kenntnisstandes in der Erforschung von möglichen Gesundheitsrisiken durch hochfrequente Strahlung bei Strahlenbelastungen, denen die Bevölkerung typischerweise im täglichen Leben ausgesetzt ist. Grundlage bilden experimentelle Studien an Menschen sowie epidemiologische Untersuchungen, die Effekte von Strahlungsemittenten im hochfrequenten Bereich (ca. 100 kHz bis 10 GHz) untersuchten. Die relevanten Studien wurden mittels systematischer Literaturrecherche in den Datenbanken Medline und ISI Web of Science eruiert. Es hat sich gezeigt, dass für eine abschließende Beurteilung der Gesundheitsgefährdung im Niedrigdosisbereich die wissenschaftliche Datenlage zurzeit unbefriedigend ist. Langzeitstudien an Menschen in ihrer natürlichen Umgebung gibt es nur wenige. Entsprechend wenig kann über langfristige Gesundheitsrisiken ausgesagt werden. Es gibt einzelne Hinweise, dass Tumoren des Blut bildenden und lymphatischen Systems in der Umgebung von TV- und Radiosendern häufiger als erwartet auftreten. Die entsprechenden Studien sind jedoch widersprüchlich und weisen methodische Schwächen auf. Untersuchungen zum Hirntumorrisiko von Mobiltelefonbenutzern fanden bisher kein erhöhtes Risiko. Dabei ist jedoch zu berücksichtigen, dass die durchschnittliche Mobiltelefonbenutzung in den untersuchten Kollektiven kürzer als die Latenzzeit von Hirntumoren war. Deshalb und aufgrund von Hinweisen in einigen Studien kann eine Assoziation zwischen langjährigem Mobiltelefongebrauch und einem erhöhten Hirntumorrisiko zurzeit nicht ausgeschlossen werden. Experimentelle Studien belegen unmittelbare Wirkungen der Hochfrequenzstrahlung, die nicht mit einem konventionellen Erwärmungsansatz erklärt werden können. Diese unmittelbaren Wirkungen liegen im Schwankungsbereich von normalen Werten und es ist schwierig, sie im Hinblick auf eine mögliche Gesundheitsgefährdung zu interpretieren. Sie zeigen jedoch, dass es noch andere biologische Wirkungsmechanismen gibt als die etablierten thermischen Wirkungen. Da die bisherigen, noch lückenhaften wissenschaftlichen Studien eine gesundheitliche Unbedenklichkeit weder ausschließen noch positiv belegen, ist für jeden Einzelnen als auch für die Bevölkerung als Ganzes ein vorsorgeorientierter Ansatz im Umgang mit nichtionisierender Strahlung zu empfehlen.

Abstract

This paper gives an overview of present scientific knowledge in health research on the effects from radio and microwave frequency radiation, at levels to which the general population is typically exposed. The review is based on human experimental and epidemiological studies investigating the effects of radiation in the frequency range between 100 kHz and 10 GHz. The relevant studies were identified via systematic searches of the databases Medline and ISI Web of Science. The review concludes that the existing scientific knowledge base is too limited to draw final conclusions on the health risk from exposure in the low-dose range. Only few studies have investigated the effect of long-term exposure on the general population in the normal environment. Accordingly, little can be predicted regarding long-term health risks. Various studies observed an increased risk for tumours in the hematopoietic and lymphatic tissue of people living in the proximity of TV and radio broadcast transmitters. However, methodological limitations to these studies have been identified and their findings are controversial. In studies of a possible association between brain tumours and mobile phone use, the average period mobile phones use was short compared to the known latency period of brain tumours. Although these studies did not establish an overall increased risk of brain tumours associated with mobile phone use, there were some indications of an association. Immediate effects associated with mobile phone use have been observed in human experimental studies that cannot be explained by conventional thermal mechanisms. The observed effects are within the normal physiological range and are therefore hard to interpret with respect to an increased risk to health. However, it can be concluded that mechanisms other than the established thermal mechanisms exist. Because of the present fragmentary scientific database, a precautionary approach when dealing with radio and microwave frequency radiation is recommended for the individual and the general population.

Schlüsselwörter

Mobilfunkstrahlung - nichtionisierende Strahlung - hochfrequente Strahlung - Tumoren - Gesundheitsstörung

Key words

Mobile phone radiation - non ionising radiation - radio and microwave frequency radiation - tumours - symptoms of ill health

Literatur

  • 1 ICNIRP . Guidelines for limiting exposure to time-varying electric, magnetic, and electormagnetic fields (up to 300 GHz).  Health Physics. 1998;  74 (4) 494-522
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 2 Röösli M, Rapp R. Hochfrequente Strahlung und Gesundheit. BUWAL Umwelt-Materialien Nr. 162 Bern; Bundesamt für Umwelt, Wald und Landschaft. http://www.umwelt-schweiz.ch/buwal/de/fachgebiete/fg_nis/ 2003
    Google Scholar
  • 3 Repacholi M H, Cardis E. Criteria for EMF health risk assessment.  Radiation Protection Dosimetry. 1997;  72 (3-4) 305-312
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 4 Kleinstein B H, Goldberg R B, Collier M N. et al .Biological effects of nonionizing electromagnetic radiation. Bener Digest Update Philadelphia; Information Ventures Inc. 2002
    Google Scholar
  • 5 Hill A B. The environment and disease: association or causation.  Proceedings of the Royal Society of Medicine. 1965;  58 295-300
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 6 Traavik T. Too early may be too late. Ecological risks associated with the use of naked DNA as a biological tool for research, production and therapy. Research report for Directorate for Nature Management.  Norway. 1999; 
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 7 Rothman K J, Greenland S. Modern Epidemiology. 2nd edition Boston, MA; Little, Brown and Company 1998
    Google Scholar
  • 8 Röösli M, Wanner M, Braun-Fahrländer C. Comparison of measurements and calculations of electromagnetic radiation from GSM mobile phone base stations.  Epidemiology. 2002;  13 (4) S196
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 9 Mantiply E D, Pohl K R, Poppell S W. et al . Summary of measured radiofrequency electric and magnetic fields (10 kHz to 30 GHz) in the general and work environment.  Bioelectromagnetics. 1997;  18 (8) 563-577
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 10 Ramsdale P A, Wiener A. Cellular phone base stations: Technology and exposures.  Radiation Protection Dosimetry. 1999;  83 (1-2) 125-130
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 11 Schüz J, Mann S. A discussion of potential exposure metrics for use in epidemiological studies on human exposure to radiowaves from mobile phone base stations.  Journal of Exposure Analysis and Environmental Epidemiology. 2000;  10 (6) 600-605
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 12 Klaus G. Messkampagne NIS-Immissionen im HF-Bereich. Liestal; Lufthygieneamt beider Basel 2002
    Google Scholar
  • 13 Anglesio L, Benedetto A, Bonino A. et al . Population exposure to electromagnetic fields generated by radio base stations: evaluation of the urban background by using provisional model and instrumental measurements.  Radiat Prot Dosimetry. 2001;  97 (4) 355-358
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 14 Wiart J, Dale C, Bosisio A V. et al . Analysis of the influence of the power control and discontinuous transmission on RF exposure with GSM mobile phones.  Ieee Transactions On Electromagnetic Compatibility. 2000;  42 (4) 376-385
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 15 King R WP. Electric currents and fields induced in cells in the human brain by radiation from hand-held cellular telephones.  Journal of Applied Physics. 2000;  87 (2) 893-900
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 16 Gandhi O P, Li Q X, Kang G. Temperature rise for the human head for cellular telephones and for peak SARs prescribed in safety guidelines.  Ieee Transactions On Microwave Theory and Techniques. 2001;  49 (9) 1607-1613
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 17 Balzano Q. Exposure metrics for RF epidemiology: Cellular phone handsets.  Radiation Protection Dosimetry. 1999;  83 (1-2) 165-169
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 18 Karus M, Niessen P, Bathow M. Elektrosmog durch schnurlose DECT-Telefone.  ElektrosmogReport. 2002;  8 (3) 1-2
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 19 Kainz W, Neubauer G, Alesch F. et al . Electromagnetic compatibility of electronic implants - review of the literature.  Wien Klin Wochenschr. 2001;  113 (23-24) 903-914
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 20 de Seze R. Epidemiology, human experiments and overexposures to assess health risk.  Measurement & Control. 1998;  31 (6) 176-179
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 21 Frey A H. Auditory system response to radio frequency energy.  Aerosp Med. 1961;  32 1140-1142
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 22 Lin J C. Cellular telephones and their effect on the human brain.  Ieee Antennas and Propagation Magazine. 1999;  41 (6) 132-133
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 23 Lin J C. Hearing microwaves: The microwave auditory phenomenon.  Ieee Antennas and Propagation Magazine. 2001;  43 (6) 166-168
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 24 Redelmeier D A, Tibshirani R J. Association between cellular-telephone calls and motor vehicle collisions.  The New England Journal of Medicine. 1997;  336 (7) 453-458
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 25 Redelmeier D A, Tibshirani R J. Car phones and car crashes: some popular misconceptions.  Canadian Medical Association Journal. 2001;  164 (11) 1581-1582
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 26 Sagberg F. Accident risk of car drivers during mobile telephone use.  International Journal of Vehicle Design. 2001;  26 (1) 57-69
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 27 Dreyer N A, Loughlin J E, Rothman K J. Cause-specific mortality in cellular telephone users.  Journal of the American Medical Association. 1999;  282 1814-1816
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 28 Hamblin D L, Wood A W. Effects of mobile phone emissions on human brain activity and sleep variables.  Int J Radiat Biol. 2002;  78 (8) 659-669
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 29 Hladky A, Musil J, Roth Z. et al . Acute effects of using a mobile phone on CNS functions.  Cent Eur J Public Health. 1999;  7 (4) 165-167
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 30 Urban P, Lukas E, Roth Z. Does acute exposure to the electromagnetic field emitted by a mobile phone influence visual evoked potentials? A pilot study.  Cent Eur J Public Health. 1998;  6 (4) 288-290
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 31 Eulitz C, Ullsperger P, Freude G. et al . Mobile phones modulate response patterns of human brain activity.  Neuroreport. 1998;  9 (14) 3229-3232
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 32 Krause C M, Sillanmaki L, Koivisto M. et al . Effects of electromagnetic fields emitted by cellular phones on the electroencephalogram during a visual working memory task.  International Journal of Radiation Biology. 2000;  76 (12) 1659-1667
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 33 Jech R, Sonka K, Ruzicka E. et al . Electromagnetic field of mobile phones affects visual event related potential in patients with narcolepsy.  Bioelectromagnetics. 2001;  22 (7) 519-528
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 34 Freude G, Ullsperger P, Eggert S. et al . Effects of microwaves emitted by cellular phones on human slow brain potentials.  Bioelectromagnetics. 1998;  19 (6) 384-387
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 35 Freude G, Ullsperger P, Eggert S. et al . Microwaves emitted by cellular telephones affect human slow brain potentials.  European Journal of Applied Physiology and Occupational Physiology. 2000;  81 (1-2) 18-27
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 36 Preece A W, Iwi G, Davies-Smith A. et al . Effect of a 915-MHz simulated mobile phone signal on cognitive function in man.  International Journal of Radiation Biology. 1999;  75 (4) 447-456
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 37 Koivisto M, Krause C M, Revonsuo A. et al . The effects of electromagnetic field emitted by GSM phones on working memory.  Neuroreport. 2000;  11 (8) 1641-1643
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 38 Koivisto M, Revonsuo A, Krause C. et al . Effects of 902 MHz electromagnetic field emitted by cellular telephones on response times in humans.  Neuroreport. 2000;  11 (2) 413-415
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 39 Edelstyn N, Oldershaw A. The acute effects of exposure to the electromagnetic field emitted by mobile phones on human attention.  Neuroreport. 2002;  13 (1) 119-121
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 40 Mann K, Röschke J. Effects of pulsed high-frequency electromagnetic fields on human sleep.  Neuropsychobiology. 1996;  33 (1) 41-47
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 41 Borbely A A, Huber R, Graf T. et al . Pulsed high-frequency electromagnetic field affects human sleep and sleep electroencephalogram.  Neuroscience Letters. 1999;  275 (3) 207-210
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 42 Huber R, Graf T, Cote K A. et al . Exposure to pulsed high-frequency electromagnetic field during waking affects human sleep EEG.  Neuroreport. 2000;  11 (15) 3321-3325
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 43 Lebedeva N N, Sulimov A V, Sulimova O P. et al . Investigation of brain potentials in sleeping humans exposed to the electromagnetic field of mobile phones.  Critical Reviews in Biomedical Engineering. 2001;  29 (1) 125-133
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 44 Huber R, Treyer V, Borbely A A. et al . Electromagnetic fields, such as those from mobile phones, alter regional cerebral blood flow and sleep and waking EEG.  J Sleep Res. 2002;  11 (4) 289-295
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 45 Wagner P, Röschke J, Mann K. et al . Human sleep EEG under the influence of pulsed radio frequency electromagnetic fields - Results from polysomnographies using submaximal high power flux densities.  Neuropsychobiology. 2000;  42 (4) 207-212
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 46 Wagner P, Röschke J, Mann K. et al . Human sleep under the influence of pulsed radiofrequency electromagnetic fields: A polysomnographic study using standardized conditions.  Bioelectromagnetics. 1998;  19 (3) 199-202
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 47 von Klitzing L. Low-frequency pulsed electromagnetic fields influence EEG of man.  Physica Medica. 1995;  11 (2) 77-80
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 48 Reiser H, Dimpfel W, Schober F. The influence of electromagnetic fields on human brain activity.  Eur J Med Res. 1995;  1 27-32
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 49 Lebedeva N N, Sulimov A V, Sulimova O P. et al . Cellular phone electromagnetic field effects on bioelectric activity of human brain.  Critical Reviews in Biomedical Engineering. 2000;  28 (1-2) 323-337
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 50 Croft R J, Chandler J S, Burgess A P. et al . Acute mobile phone operation affects neural function in humans.  Clin Neurophysiol. 2002;  113 (10) 1623-1632
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 51 Röschke J, Mann K. No short-term effects of digital mobile radio telephone on the awake human electroencephalogram.  Bioelectromagnetics. 1997;  18 (2) 172-176
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 52 Hietanen M, Kovala T, Hamalainen A M. Human brain activity during exposure to radiofrequency fields emitted by cellular phones.  Scandinavian Journal of Work Environment & Health. 2000;  26 (2) 87-92
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 53 Meister A, Eggert S, Richter J. et al . Die Wirkung eines höchstfrequenten elektromagnetischen Feldes (2,45 GHz) auf Wahrnehmungsprozesse, psychische Leistung und Befinden.  Zentralblatt gesamte Hygiene. 1989;  35 (4) 203-205
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 54 Maier R. Do pulsed electromagnetic fields impair CNS activity?.  Biomedizinische Technik. 2001;  46 (1-2) 18-23
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 55 Hocking B, Westerman R. Neurological abnormalities associated with mobile phone use.  Occupational Medicine-Oxford. 2000;  50 (5) 366-368
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 56 Hocking B, Westerman R. Neurological abnormalities associated with CDMA exposure.  Occupational Medicine-Oxford. 2001;  51 (6) 410-413
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 57 Hocking B. Symptoms associated with mobile phone use.  Occupational Medicine-London. 1998;  48 (6) 357-360
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 58 Chia S E, Chia H P, Tan J S. Prevalence of headache among handheld cellular telephone users in Singapore: A community study.  Environmental Health Perspectives. 2000;  108 (11) 1059-1062
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 59 Chia S E, Chia H P, Tan J S. Health hazards of mobile phones - Prevalence of headache is increased among users in Singapore.  British Medical Journal. 2000;  321 (7269) 1155-1156
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 60 Oftedal G, Wilen J, Sandstrom M. et al . Symptoms experienced in connection with mobile phone use.  Occup Med Lond. 2000;  50 (4) 237-245
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 61 Santini R, Seigne M, Bonhomme-Faivre L. et al . Symptoms experienced by users of digital cellular phones.  Pathologie Biologie. 2001;  49 (3) 222-226
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 62 Sandstrom M, Wilen J, Oftedal G. et al . Mobile phone use and subjective symptoms. Comparison of symptoms experienced by users of analogue and digital mobile phones.  Occupational Medicine-Oxford. 2001;  51 (1) 25-35
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 63 Koivisto M, Haarala C, Krause C M. et al . GSM phone signal does not produce subjective symptoms.  Bioelectromagnetics. 2001;  22 (3) 212-215
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 64 Santini R, Santini P, Danze J M. et al . [Investigation on the health of people living near mobile telephone relay stations: I/Incidence according to distance and sex].  Pathol Biol (Paris). 2002;  50 (6) 369-373
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 65 Santini R, Santini P, Seigne M. et al . Symptomes exprimés par des riverains de station relais de téléphonie mobile.  La Presse Medicale. 2001;  30 (32) 1594
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 66 Hardell L, Nasman A, Pahlson A. et al . Use of cellular telephones and the risk for brain tumours: A case-control study.  International Journal of Oncology. 1999;  15 (1) 113-116
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 67 Hardell L, Nasman A, Pahlson A. et al . Case-control study on radiology work, medical x-ray investigations, and use of cellular telephones as risk factors for brain tumors. Medscape: http://www.medscape.com/Medscape/GeneralMedicine/journal/2000/v02.n03/mgm0504.hard/pnt-mgm0504.hard.html, 2000. 
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 68 Muscat J E, Malkin M C, Thompson S. et al . Handheld cellular telephone use and risk of brain cancer.  Jama-Journal of the American Medical Association. 2000;  284 (23) 3001-3007
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 69 Inskip P D, Tarone R E, Hatch E E. et al . Cellular-telephone use and brain tumors.  New England Journal of Medicine. 2001;  344 (2) 79-86
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 70 Johansen C, Boice J D, McLaughlin J K. et al . Cellular telephones and cancer - A nationwide cohort study in Denmark.  Journal of the National Cancer Institute. 2001;  93 (3) 203-207
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 71 Auvinen A, Hietanen M, Luukkonen R. et al . Brain tumors and salivary gland cancers among cellular telephone users.  Epidemiology. 2002;  13 (3) 356-359
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 72 Muscat J E, Malkin M G, Shore R E. et al . Handheld cellular telephones and risk of acoustic neuroma.  Neurology. 2002;  58 (8) 1304-1306
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 73 Hardell L, Hallquist A, Mild H K. et al . Cellular and cordless telephones and the risk for brain tumors.  European Journal of Cancer Prevention. 2002;  11 (4) 377-386
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 74 Hardell L, Mild H K, Carlberg M. Case-control study on the use of cellular and cordless phones and the risk for malignant brain tumours.  Int J Radiat Biol. 2002;  78 (10) 931-936
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 75 Erman M, Celik I, Kars A. Cellular telephones and brain tumors.  New England Journal of Medicine. 2001;  344 (17) 1331
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 76 Frey A H. Cellular telephones and brain cancer: Current research.  Environmental Health Perspectives. 2001;  109 (5) A200
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 77 Nelson N J. Recent studies show cell phone use is not associated with increased cancer risk.  Journal of the National Cancer Institute. 2001;  93 (3) 170-172
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 78 Godward S, Sandhu M, Skinner J. et al . Re: Cellular telephones and cancer - a nationwide cohort study in Denmark.  Journal of the National Cancer Institute. 2001;  93 (11) 878
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 79 Hocking B. Re: Cellular telephones and cancer - a nationwide cohort study in Denmark.  Journal of the National Cancer Institute. 2001;  93 (11) 877-878
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 80 Hardell L, Mild K H. Re: Cellular telephones and cancer - a nationwide cohort study in Denmark.  Journal of the National Cancer Institute. 2001;  93 (12) 952
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 81 Kane R C. Cellular telephones and brain tumors.  New England Journal of Medicine. 2001;  344 (17) 1332
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 82 Kane R C. Handheld cellular telephones and brain cancer risk.  Jama-Journal of the American Medical Association. 2001;  285 (14) 1838
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 83 Selvin S, Schulman J, Merrill D W. Distance and risk measures for the analysis of spatial data: a study of childhood cancers.  Soc Sci Med. 1992;  34 (7) 769-777
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 84 Hocking B, Gordon I R, Grain H L. et al . Cancer incidence and mortality and proximity to TV towers.  Medical Journal of Australia. 1996;  165 (11-12) 601-605
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 85 Dolk H, Shaddick G, Walls P. et al . Cancer incidence near radio and television transmitters in Great Britain. 1. Sutton Coldfield transmitter. American Journal of Epidemiology.  1997;  145 (1) 1-9
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 86 Dolk H, Elliott P, Shaddick G. et al . Cancer incidence near radio and television transmitters in Great Britain. 2. All high power transmitters.  American Journal of Epidemiology. 1997;  145 (1) 10-17
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 87 Grayson J K. Radiation exposure, socioeconomic status, and brain tumor risk in the US Air Force: a nested case-control study.  American Journal of Epidemiology. 1996;  143 (5) 480-486
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 88 Szmigielski S. Cancer morbidity in subjects occupationally exposed to high frequency (radiofrequency and microwave) electromagnetic radiation.  Science of the Total Environment. 1996;  180 (1) 9-17
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 89 Milham S Jr. Increased mortality in amateur radio operators due to lymphatic and hematopoietic malignancies.  Am J Epidemiol. 1988;  127 (1) 50-54
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 90 Milham S Jr. Mortality by license class in amateur radio operators.  Am J Epidemiol. 1988;  128 (5) 1175-1176
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 91 Morgan R W, Kelsh M A, Zhao K. et al . Radiofrequency exposure and mortality from cancer of the brain and lymphatic/hematopoietic systems.  Epidemiology. 2000;  11 (2) 118-127
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 92 Maskarinec G, Cooper J, Swygert L. Investigation of increased incidence in childhood leukemia near radio towers in Hawaii: preliminary observations.  J Environ Pathol Toxicol Oncol. 1994;  13 (1) 33-37
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 93 Cooper D, Hemmings K, Saunders P. Re: “Cancer incidence near radio and television transmitters in Great Britain. I. Sutton Coldfield transmitter; II. All high power transmitters”.  American Journal of Epidemiology. 2001;  153 (2) 202-204
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 94 Michelozzi P, Capon A, Kirchmayer U. et al . Adult and Childhood Leukemia near a High-Power Radio Station in Rome, Italy.  Am J Epidemiol. 2002;  155 (12) 1096-1103
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 95 Dahme M. Residential RF exposures.  Radiation Protection Dosimetry. 1999;  83 (1-2) 113-117
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 96 Cherry N. A new paradigm, the physical, biological and health effects of radiofrequency/microwave radiation. Canterbury, New Zealand; Lincoln University 2000
    Google Scholar
  • 97 Fabbro-Peray P, Daures J P, Rossi J F. Environmental risk factors for non-Hodgkin’s lymphoma: a population-based case-control study in Languedoc-Roussillon, France.  Cancer Causes & Control. 2001;  12 (3) 201-212
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 98 Robinette C D, Silverman C, Jablon S. Effects upon health of occupational exposure to microwave radiation (radar).  Am J Epidemiol. 1980;  112 (1) 39-53
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 99 Cano M I, Pollan M. Non-Hodgkin’s lymphomas and occupation in Sweden.  International Archives of Occupational and Environmental Health. 2001;  74 (6) 443-449
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 100 Mann K, Wagner P, Brunn G. et al . Effects of pulsed high-frequency electromagnetic fields on the neuroendocrine system.  Neuroendocrinology. 1998;  67 (2) 139-144
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 101 Röösli M, Moser M, Meier M. et al .Health symptoms associated with electromagnetic radiation - a questionnaire survey. P. Kostarakis Biological Effects of EMFs Rhodes; http://www.telecomlab.gr/2002/oct/rhodes/pap3rs/rhodes02.html, 2002; 670-677
    Google Scholar
  • 102 Altpeter E S, Krebs T, Pfluger D H. et al .Study on health effects of the shortwave transmitter station of Schwarzenburg, Berne, Switzerland (Major Report). Bern; Federal Office of Energy 1995
    Google Scholar
  • 103 Radon K, Maschke C. Gibt es Elektrosensibilität im D-Netzbereich?.  Umweltmed Forsch Prax. 1998;  3 (3) 125-129
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 104 Mueller C H, Krueger H, Schierz C. Project NEMESIS: Perception of a 50 Hz electric and magnetic field at low intensities (laboratory experiment).  Bioelectromagnetics. 2002;  23 (1) 26-36
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 105 Rea W J, Fenyves E J, Sujisawa I. et al . Electromagnetic Field Sensitivity.  J Bioelectricity. 1991;  10 241-256
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 106 Stevens R G. Electric power use and breast cancer: a hypothesis.  Am J Epidemiol. 1987;  125 (4) 556-561
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 107 de Seze R, Fabbro-Peray P, Miro L. GSM radiocellular telephones do not disturb the secretion of antepituitary hormones in humans.  Bioelectromagnetics. 1998;  19 (5) 271-278
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 108 Radon K, Parera D, Rose D M. et al . No effects of pulsed radio frequency electromagnetic fields on melatonin, cortisol, and selected markers of the immune system in man.  Bioelectromagnetics. 2001;  22 (4) 280-287
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 109 Burch J B, Reif J S, Noonan C W. et al . Melatonin metabolite excretion among cellular telephone users.  Int J Radiat Biol. 2002;  78 (11) 1029-1036
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 110 Braune S, Riedel A, Schulte-Monting J. et al . Influence of a radiofrequency electromagnetic field on cardiovascular and hormonal parameters of the autonomic nervous system in healthy individuals.  Radiat Res. 2002;  158 (3) 352-356
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 111 Grajewski B, Cox C, Schrader S M. et al . Semen quality and hormone levels among radiofrequency heater operators.  Journal of Occupational and Environmental Medicine. 2000;  42 (10) 993-1005
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 112 Dasdag S, Balci K, Kaya H. et al . Hormone levels of people occupationally exposed to radiofrequencies.  Biochemical Archives. 1999;  15 (3) 255-260
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 113 Vangelova K, Israel M, Mihaylov S. The effect of low level radiofrequency electromagnetic radiation on the excretion rates of stress hormones in operators during 24-hour shifts.  Cent Eur J Public Health. 2002;  10 (1-2) 24-28
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 114 Boscolo P, Di Sciascio M B, D’Ostilio S. et al . Effects of electromagnetic fields produced by radiotelevision broadcasting stations on the immune system of women.  Science of the Total Environment. 2001;  273 (1-3) 1-10
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 115 Del S ignore A, Boscolo P, Kouri S. et al . Combined effects of traffic and electromagnetic fields on the immune system of fertile atopic women.  Industrial Health. 2000;  38 (3) 294-300
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 116 Tuschl H, Neubauer G, Garn H. et al . Occupational exposure to high frequency electromagnetic fields and its effect on human immune parameters.  Int J Occup Med Environ Health. 1999;  12 (3) 239-251
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 117 Bortkiewicz A, Zmyslony M, Palczynski C. et al . Dysregulation of autonomic control of cardiac function in workers at AM broadcasting stations (0.738-1.503 MHz).  Electro- and Magnetobiology. 1995;  14 (3) 177-191
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 118 Bortkiewicz A, Gadzicka E, Zmyslony M. Heart rate variability in workers exposed to medium-frequency electromagnetic fields.  Journal of the Autonomic Nervous System. 1996;  59 (3) 91-97
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 119 Bortkiewicz A, Zmyslony M, Gadzicka E. et al . Ambulatory ECG monitoring in workers exposed to electromagnetic fields.  Journal of Medical Engineering & Technology. 1997;  21 (2) 41-46
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 120 Braune S, Wrocklage C, Raczek J. et al . Resting blood pressure increase during exposure to a radio-frequency electromagnetic field.  Lancet. 1998;  351 (9119) 1857-1858
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 121 Kallen B, Malmquist G, Moritz U. Delivery outcome among physiotherapists in Sweden: is non-ionizing radiation a fetal hazard?.  Arch Environ Health. 1982;  37 (2) 81-85
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 122 Guberan E, Campana A, Faval P. et al . Gender ratio of offspring and exposure to shortwave radiation among female physiotherapists.  Scand J Work Environ Health. 1994;  20 (5) 345-348
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 123 Larsen A I. Congenital malformations and exposure to high-frequency electromagnetic radiation among Danish physiotherapists.  Scand J Work Environ Health. 1991;  17 (5) 318-323
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 124 Lerman Y, Jacubovich R, Green M S. Pregnancy outcome following exposure to shortwaves among female physiotherapists in Israel.  Am J Ind Med. 2001;  39 (5) 499-504
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 125 Taskinen H, Kyyronen P, Hemminki K. Effects of ultrasound, shortwaves, and physical exertion on pregnancy outcome in physiotherapists.  J Epidemiol Community Health. 1990;  44 (3) 196-201
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 126 Ouellet-Hellstrom R, Stewart W F. Miscarriages among female physical therapists who report using radio- and microwave-frequency electromagnetic radiation.  Am J Epidemiol. 1993;  138 (10) 775-786
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 127 De Roos A J, Teschke K, Savitz D A. et al . Parental occupational exposures to electromagnetic fields and radiation and the incidence of neuroblastoma in offspring.  Epidemiology. 2001;  12 508-517
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 128 Blettner M, Schlehofer B. Is there an increased risk of leukemia, brain tumors or breast cancer after exposure to high-frequency radiation?.  Medizinische Klinik. 1999;  94 (3) 150-158
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 129 Hennies K, Neitzke H P, Voigt H. Mobilfunk und Gesundheit. Hannover; ECOLOG-Institut 2000
    Google Scholar
  • 130 French P W, Penny R, Laurence J A. et al . Mobile phones, heat shock proteins and cancer.  Differentiation. 2001;  67 (4-5) 93-97
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 131 Repacholi M H. Low-level exposure to radiofrequency electromagnetic fields: Health effects and research needs.  Bioelectromagnetics. 1998;  19 (1) 1-19
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 132 Garson O M, McRobert T L, Campbell L J. et al . A chromosomal study of workers with long-term exposure to radio-frequency radiation.  Med J Aust. 1991;  155 (5) 289-292
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 133 Lalic H, Lekic A, Radosevic-Stasic B. Comparison of chromosome aberrations in peripheral blood lymphocytes from people occupationally exposed to ionizing and radiofrequency radiation.  Acta Medica Okayama. 2001;  55 (2) 117-127
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 134 Maes A, Collier M, Slaets D. et al . Cytogenetic Effects of Microwaves From Mobile Communication Frequencies (954 Mhz).  Electro- and Magnetobiology. 1995;  14 (2) 91-98
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 135 Stang A, Anastassiou G, Ahrens W. et al . The possible role of radiofrequency radiation in the development of uveal melanoma.  Epidemiology. 2001;  12 (1) 7-12
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 136 Johansen C, Boice J D Jr, McLaughlin J K. et al . Mobile phones and malignant melanoma of the eye.  Br J Cancer. 2002;  86 (3) 348-349
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 137 Rothman K J, Loughlin J E, Funch D P. et al . Overall mortality of cellular telephone customers.  Epidemiology. 1996;  7 (3) 303-305
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 138 Dreyer N A, Loughlin J E, Rothman K J. Epidemiological safety surveillance of cellular telephones in the US.  Radiation Protection Dosimetry. 1999;  83 (1-2) 159-163
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 139 Hayes R B, Brown L M, Pottern L M. et al . Occupation and risk for testicular cancer: a case-control study.  Int J Epidemiol. 1990;  19 (4) 825-831
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 140 Davis R L, Mostofi F K. Cluster of testicular cancer in police officers exposed to hand-held radar.  Am J Ind Med. 1993;  24 (2) 231-233
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 141 Salvatore J R. Radar guns.  J Natl Cancer Inst. 1993;  85 (1) 67-68
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 142 Volkers N. Speed kills - but what about radar guns?.  J Natl Cancer Inst. 1992;  84 (17) 1310-1311
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 143 Milham S. Increased Mortality in Amateur Radio Operators Due to Lymphatic and Hematopoietic Malignancies - Reply.  American Journal of Epidemiology. 1988;  128 (6) 1384-1385
    PubMedGoogle Scholar

1 Die Macht bzw. Power (P) berechnet sich aus 1 minus dem Fehler der 2. Art (β): P = 1-β.

Martin Röösli

Institut für Sozial- und Präventivmedizin der Universität Basel

Steinengraben 49

CH-4051 Basel, Switzerland

Email: Roeoesli@ispm.unibe.ch

      >