Anthropogenic temper versus geological and pedological inclusions: grog temper as a possible chrono-cultural marker for the Late Ceramic Age in the pre-Columbian 2 Lesser Antilles

In order to compare pre-Columbian cultural affiliations in the Lesser Antilles, we studied three ceramic 44 series from Guadeloupe (F.W.I.) from well-dated


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The ceramic studies of pre-Columbian series have progressively developed for various areas of the Antilles,

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Geochemical analyses of ceramics provide important results in areas dominated by volcanic geology and demonstrate that material supplies were systematically carried out in the immediate vicinity of the place of 80 residence (Walter, 1991(Walter, , 1992Lawrence et al., 2021). Here, we identify variability in temper through 81 petrographic analyses to characterize the materials used in ceramic production and determine the presence 82 or absence of grog temper. We then evaluate whether or not grog can be considered as a probable cultural 83 marker, which may indicate changes between Saladoid and Troumassoid cultures (see Donahue et al., 84 1990).

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Grog is crushed pottery, added to clay matrix as a temper, mainly to limit the shrinkage during firing (Rye, 86 1981:116-117, Rice, 1987:75). Indeed, because grog is not revealed when using geochemical analyses and 87 frequently confused with ferruginous fragments or pisoliths under stereomicroscopic, optical petrography 88 remains the best method to highlight the presence of this temper (Whitbread, 1986). Martinique for Saladoid ceramics (Gautier, 1974;Belhace et al., 1991;Walter, 1991;1992)  Barbados (Drewett and Harris, 1991:182) .Concerning the Northern Lesser Antilles, grog has been identified 99 in pre-Columbian ceramic assemblages by Hoffman (1979:38) for the Mill Reef site on Antigua which was 100 confirmed a decade later by Donahue et al. (1990) for the islands of Barbuda, Montserrat, Anguilla and 101 Saint Martin. A decade later, under the impulse of James Petersen, grog was identified for Troumassoid 102 ceramics from the Muddy Bay site at Antigua featured grog and sand (Murphy, 1999:234-235) and many 103 post-Saladoid ceramics (N=294) from Anguilla of which the LCA site of Sandy Hill was the most abundant in 104 grog (Crock, 2000:228-229 , Table 42). However, another series of analysis by the latter researcher does not 105 mention the presence of grog at Anguilla and Salt River (Crock et al., 2008). Macroscopic analysis on 65 sherds from Golden Rock (Saint Eustasius) also evidenced grog as a temper (Versteeg and Schinkel 1992,

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Appendix 1:236). However, these observations have been challenged by Corinne Hofman (1993:195), who 108 proposed that the red particles may not be grog but rather could be pisoliths or small lateritic nodules. In 109 short, this debate can be avoided when microscopical analysis is applied, as recently done by Stienaers et al. 110 (2020). Following this method, we initiate the study of three new ceramic assemblages from the  The focus aimed in this article is the recognition of the temper to highlight the main features of the various 137 ceramic fabrics, a first step before the reconstruction of the stage of chaîne opératoire or identification of 138 provenance areas in the Lesser Antilles islands, as described by Ting et al. (2016;. For the study of the 139 ceramic assemblages the modal or Rousean method has been applied. The objective of the modal method

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The principal elements of this classification of ceramic vessels and tools consist of the ratio between the 145 orifice and the height of the vessels. In this way, we can distinguish five open forms: griddles, platters, 146 bowls, cups, and goblets, as well as three restricted forms: pot, bottle, and restricted bowl. All these forms

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The classification of vessel shapes is mainly based on the rim profile, which thus functions as a principal 155 marker of the vessel shape. The vessel's orientation and diameter are determined using rim sherds (Hofman Petrography is one of the best and quickest tools to identify the main components of ceramic temper 167 (Quinn, 2009;2013;Smith and Herbert, 2010). It provides geological background as well as textural 168 characterization to reveal the presence and the variety of specific tempers such as grog, bones or plant 169 inclusions that are sometimes impossible to identify with other geochemical techniques (Peacock, 1970; 170 Whitbread, 1986).

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As a preliminary study aimed to confirm and discuss the content or the lack of volcanic sand in certain 172 ceramic sherds from Guadeloupe, 24 thin sections were prepared from samples collected from three    (Figure 1). At all three sites, the topsoil was 186 mechanically removed prior to excavation since this layer was in all cases highly disturbed by intensive ploughing for either bananas or sugar cane production. Below the topsoil, the sterile, yellow/orange colored 188 volcanic subsoil appeared, revealing multiple features such as postholes, large circular pits, hearths, and 189 burial pits. In total 1.3 hectares have been excavated yielding 347 post holes, 94 pits, 10 hearths, 2 burials, 190 and 145 kilograms of ceramic material of which 571 rim, base, and griddle fragments (CE) are described in 191 detail (Table 1)

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The main occupation span for the sites ranges between AD 1000-1200 for CHU Belle-Plaine, AD 800-1250 209 for Sainte-Claire, and AD 1100-1300 for Parking de Roseau (Table 2)

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Claire, which revealed diagnostic elements for an earlier Late Saladoid occupation as highlighted by one 213 radiocarbon date around AD 450. The Parking de Roseau site features one radiocarbon date around AD 900 (pit F 174) that does not fit the main occupation and earlier Saladoid ceramic elements have not been 215 registered at all. Only CHU Belle-Plaine excavation appears to be solely Troumassoid stylistically, but it may 216 also reveal some Suazan elements, what can also be the case for Parking de Roseau. In addition, the latter 217 site also features a few later Cayo elements as confirmed by the presence of European objects, such as glass 218 beads and Spanish earthenware, encountered primarily at the beach, situated at the foot of the site.  inward thickened or folded lips (MS 3) can also be noted, having most often red slip applied to its interior. either flat or concave-shaped of which the latter are the smallest and thickest suggesting a tronconical 245 vessel shape with a "pointed" base. Griddles are generally small and only one third is footed. Less than 6% 246 of the assemblage is decorated of which 60% is red slipped, 18% is scratched, 12 % bears incisions, and 11% 247 features modeling with only three anthropomorphic adornos.

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In the case of CHU Belle-Plaine, it has to be noted that the majority of the samples were taken from one pit 255 (F 186) and this may constitute a bias when compared to the other sites. These samples, however, 256 represent different vessel shapes from the same pit and may reflect the repertoire of the potter with one 257 "grog batch" of prepared clay, which was discarded in a same place.

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The other series are clearly less common (MS I, V, and VI), but generally have large orifices (more than 40 270 cm) and bear some scratching. The bases are flat and, to a lesser extent, concave-shaped whereas the 271 griddles are also flat with a triangular-shaped rim. Only two footed griddles have been recorded as well as 272 one pot-stand (MS VII). Over 15% of the assemblage is decorated of which 87% features red slip, 8% 273 incisions, 8% scratching, and finally some with modeling including numerous ribbon-handles (N=11).

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Macroscopic observations show that volcanic sand is the most popular temper (61%), followed by grog 275 (37%). Firing is dominated by O/R (45%) and reduction (37%) environments, followed by oxidized firing 276 (17%). It appears that reductive firing is associated to a grog temper. For thin-section analysis, three sherds 277 were taken from large circular pits, except for F 5 which originated in a former post hole re-utilized as a 278 waste pit. Circular pit F 62 was pierced by a large post hole which is part of a circular house plan. Pit F 55 (fill 279 2), pit F 62.1, and waste pit F 5 (fill 1) were dated between AD 1100 and 1250, suggesting a rather short   The majority of the bases are flat accompanied by only a few concave specimens among including a few 299 highly concave ones, or concave-shaped of which the latter are the smallest and thickest suggesting a 300 tronconical vessel shape with a "pointed" base. Griddles are generally small and only one third is footed.

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Reduction is the most common (63%) mode of firing, followed by oxidized (20%), and O/R firing (17%). All   In a second step, we try to define if these inclusions were "natural" or "anthropogenic" (temper). For some 320 elements, where identification is not definitive, we add a third group, called "uncertain" ( Table 3). In 321 addition, we separate inclusions according to the various source-types observed: from the bedrock, from regolith and soils or from inclusions corresponding to plant residues.   For the CHU Belle-Plaine site (BP), the 5 sherds analyzed formed a unique group (BP1) for which grog is the 365 main temper (Table 5). One sample however (BP-49) shows more vegetal elements and less grog temper, 366 but the other petrographic features of this sample are very close to the others, leading us to consider that 367 these differences may vary within the same group. Only a larger sample will show that a separation for this 368 group is needed.

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The clay matrix is very poor in loam and seems quite pure. The detrital inclusions are very scarce (less than

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The fabric of the grog fragments is made sometimes of only one or two types, but sometimes it seems more

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The fabric of the grog fragments is made of only one or two paste types, with a fine clay matrix, few inclusions or only few quartz grains and grog. Interestingly, grog fragments themselves also include grog.

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Sometimes it seems more diversified, because it contains various amount of loam and sand from one grog 432 fragment to another. It must be noted here that we never observed grog made of ceramics fragments linked 433 to groups PR3 and PR4. Organic inclusions are rare and correspond to carbonaceous elements without 434 microstructural features; some of them are only partly preserved or preserved as vacuolar porosities.

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The results of the thin-sections analysis show that ceramics from these three sites include various fabrics.

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The studied sherds reveal various quantities of grog (like in PR1 and PR2 groups) as well as sherds without  (Table 5). This ferruginous nodules and plant remains are believed to be 473 extracted together with the raw clay, as well as the smallest quartz grains from the loam granulometry.

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Thus, the latter inclusions belong to the clay source and are not voluntarily added by the potter. The fact 475 that these elements were still part of the fired vessel is merely due to a quick cleaning of the raw clay 476 material without an intensive process of purification. However, when comparing the three sites, some 477 identified elements may also reflect different clay and temper sources or supply strategies. The plant 478 remains and pedological features seems to be linked to a fine matrix and to sourcing in or near coastal 479 marshes whereas volcanic sands could be associated to the addition of lithic fragments form the regolith.

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The apparent dichotomy between the Saladoid and post-Saladoid series found some confirmation by 550 additional microscopic analysis executed by Petersen which has been published in the dissertations by 551 Crock (2000) and Murphy (1999). Other LCA sites, such as Salt River (Conner and Smith, 2001) and, to a

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Through the analysis of paste, our perspective is less fluid and rather suggests a more chaotic period of 565 development by means of the arrival of distinct groups from the mainland into the Lesser Antilles.

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Our analysis of 24 samples, taken from three different, contemporary sites, shows that grog temper is 568 present at all sites. Prior to this work, grog a temper was hardly known and / or neither well identified for 569 pre-Columbian ceramic assemblages on Guadeloupe. Our petrographic analysis also showed that all 570 samples contained small amount of quartz grains, and sometimes volcanic sands or cinders, pedological 571 iron oxides particles in various quantities. Plant residues are also frequent, but never in dominant 572 quantities. Therefore, it is difficult to tell whether this matter was intentionally added to the raw clay or if it 573 was already present in the natural clay. However, the high quantities of organic matter in the Belle-Plaine 574 samples may suggest it was added to the clay by potters at this site.

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The near absence of lithoclasts for the samples from Sainte-Claire and Belle-Plaine is interesting, since both 576 sites are located on volcanic soils, suggesting that clay was taken elsewhere, perhaps in coastal marshes or 577 areas covered with thick clayey soils and in the case of Belle-Plaine the clay source should reveal 578 amphiboles.

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Grog as a temper is recorded for as one temper mode, probably used according various chaînes opératoires, 580 alongside other practices that preferentially use either fine clays with little amount of aplastic inclusions or 581 clays enriched with volcanic sands or cinders. Widely accepted among ceramics specialists, the grog 582 presence is principally related to the fact that is resists better to thermal shocks (Rye, 1981:116-117

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we observe that all red slipped elements are tempered with grog. Indeed, Sainte-Claire is a multi-component site and its earlier Saladoid occupation is attested for by many other Saladoid ceramic traits, 593 notwithstanding that the majority of the ceramic assemblage as well as the radiocarbon dates adhere to the 594 Troumassoid series.

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The presence of grog in the "Barrancoid influenced" Cedrosan Saladoid subseries in the midst of the first 596 millennium AD needs further attention here since it draws upon Terra firma influences. Despite the fact that

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The Sainte-Claire site showed that (one) Late Saladoid bell-shaped vessels also contained grog, suggesting a 631 possible pre-Troumassoid inception at Guadeloupe or perhaps an innovation signaling the end of the 632 Saladoid era, just before AD 900. It is still difficult to specify if it is related to a true Troumassoid migration 633 from the mainland around this latter date, or to a lingering Barrancoid influence among the Late Saladoid 634 population of the Windward Islands. However, it appears once more evident that grog marks cultural 635 changes in the first millennium AD; hence, now we may also add Guadeloupe to the list of Caribbean islands 636 impacted by this change.