Abstract
Affiliative postconflict reunions—reconciliations—of former opponents were first demonstrated in the chimpanzees at the Arnhem Zoo. Since then methods have been considerably refined, and reconciliation has been demonstrated in a large number of primates and also some gregarious nonprimates. This study, conducted with a different captive group, is the first to use the revised methodology with chimpanzees. We analyzed a total of 297 agonistic conflicts with the PC–MC method: we observed focal individuals for 15 min after a conflict and during matched control observations the next day. The mean conciliatory tendency of the 16 chimpanzees was 41%, with a range in different age-sex classes of 58% (among adult females) to 19% (among adult vs. immature males). After conflicts, former opponents were selectively attracted to one another. Preferential contact with previous opponents persisted when activity level during matched controls was controlled for statistically. Opponents that were frequent grooming partners reconciled more frequently, but the frequency of agonistic support had no such effect. Our findings thus confirm the existence of reconciliation in chimpanzees, which show one of the highest conciliatory tendencies among primate species.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Similar content being viewed by others
REFERENCES
Abegg, C., Thierry, B., and Kaumanns, W. (1996). Reconciliation in three groups of lion-tailed macaques. Int. J. Primatol. 17: 803–816.
Aureli, F. (1992). Post-conflict behavior among wild long-tailed macaques (Macaca fascicularis). Behav. Ecol. Sociobiol. 31: 329–337.
Aureli, F., Das, M., and Veenema, H. C. (1997). Differential kinship effect on reconciliation in three species of macaques (Macaca fascicularis, M. fuscata and M. sylvanus). J. Comp. Psychol. 111: 91–99.
Aureli, F., and de Waal, F. B. M. (1998). Peacemaking in primates. In Greenberg, G., and Haraway, M. M. (eds.), Comparative Psychology, Garland, New York, pp. 720–724.
Aureli, F., and de Waal, F. B. M. (2000). Natural Conflict Resolution, University of California Press, Berkeley.
Aureli, F., and van Schaik, C. P. (1991a). Post-conflict behaviour in long-tailed macaques (Macaca fascicularis): I. The social events. Ethology 89: 89–100.
Aureli, F., and van Schaik, C. P. (1991b). Post-conflict behavior in long-tailed macaques (Macaca fascicularis): II. Coping with the uncertainty. Ethology 89: 101–114.
Aureli, F., van Schaik, C. P., and van Hooff, J. A. R. A. M. (1989). Functional aspects of reconciliation among captive long-tailed macaques (Macaca fascicularis). Am. J. Primatol. 19: 39–51.
Baker, K. C., and Smuts, B. B. (1996). Social relationships of female chimpanzees: Diversity between captive groups. In Wrangham, R. W., McGrew, W. C., de Waal, F. B. M., and Heltne, P. G. (eds.), Chimpanzee Cultures, Harvard University Press, Cambridge, pp. 227–242.
Bernstein, I. S., and Ehardt, C. L. (1985). Age-sex differences in the expression of agonistic behavior in rhesus monkeys (Macaca mulatta) groups. J. Comp. Psychol. 99: 115–132.
Blurton Jones, N. G., and Trollope, J. (1968). Social behaviour of stumptailed macaques in captivity. Primates 9: 365–394.
Boesch, C., and Achermann-Boesch, H. (2000). The Chimpanzees of the Taï Forest, Oxford University Press, Oxford.
Cords, M. (1992). Post-conflict reunions and reconciliation in long-tailed macaques. Anim. Behav. 44: 57–63.
Cords, M. (1993). On operationally defining reconciliation. Am. J. Primatol. 29: 255–269.
Cords, M. (1997). Friendship, alliances, reciprocity and repair. In Whiten, A., and Byrne, R.W. (eds.), Machiavellian Intelligence II, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp. 24–49.
Cords, M., and Aureli, F. (1993). Patterns of reconciliation among juvenile long-tailed Macaques. In M. E. Pereira, and Fairbanks, L. A. (eds.), Juvenile Primates, Oxford University Press, New York, pp. 271–284.
Cords, M., and Aureli, F. (2000). Reconciliation and relationship qualities. In Aureli, F., and de Waal, F. B. M. (eds.), Natural Conflict Resolution, University of California Press, Berkeley, pp. 177–198.
Cords, M., and Thurnheer, S. (1993). Reconciling with valuable partners by long-tailed Macaques. Ethology 93: 315–325.
de Waal, F. B. M. (1984). Sex differences in the formation of coalitions among chimpanzees. Ethol. Sociobiol. 5: 239–255.
de Waal, F. B. M. (1986). The integration of dominance and social bonding in primates. Q. Rev. Biol. 61: 459–479.
de Waal, F. B. M. (1987). Tension regulation and nonreproductive functions of sex in captive bonobos (Pan pansicus). Nat. Geo. Res. 3: 318–335.
de Waal, F. B. M. (1989). Food sharing and reciprocal obligations among chimpanzees. J. Hum. Evol. 18: 433–459.
de Waal, F. B. M. (1992). Appeasement, celebration, and foodsharing in the two Pan species. In Nishida, T., McGrew, W. C., Marler, P., Pickford, M., and de Waal, F. B. M. (eds.), Human Origins, Vol. 1, University of Tokyo Press, Tokyo, pp. 37–50.
de Waal, F. B. M. (1993). Reconciliation among primates: A review of empirical evidence and unresolved issues. In Mason, W. A., and Mendoza, S. P. (eds.), Primate Social Conflict, State University of New York Press, Albany, pp. 111–143.
de Waal, F. B. M. (1997a). The chimpanzee's service economy: Food for grooming. Evol. Hum. Behav. 18: 375–386.
de Waal, F.B.M.(1997b). Bonobo-theForgotten Ape, University of California Press, Berkeley.
de Waal, F. B. M., and Aureli, F. (1996). Consolation, reconciliation, and a possible cognitive difference between macaques and chimpanzees. In Russon, A. E., Bard, K. A., and Parker, S. T. (eds.), Reaching into Thought, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp. 80–110.
de Waal, F. B. M., and Luttrell, L. M. (1988). Mechanisms of social reciprocity in three primate species: Symmetrical relationship characteristics or cognition? Ethol. Sociobiol. 9, 101–118.
de Waal, F. B. M., and Ren, R. (1988). Comparison of the reconciliation behavior of stumptail and rhesus macaques. Ethology 78: 129–142.
de Waal, F. B. M., and van Hooff, J. A. R. A. M. (1981). Side-directed communication and agonistic interactions in chimpanzees. Behaviour 77: 164–198.
de Waal, F. B. M., and van Roosmalen, A. (1979). Reconciliation and consolation among chimpanzees. Behav. Ecol. Sociobiol. 5: 55–66.
de Waal, F. B. M., and Yoshihara, D. (1983). Reconciliation and redirected affection in rhesus monkeys. Behaviour 85: 224–241.
Goodall, J. (1986). The Chimpanzees of Gombe, Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA.
Griede, T. (1981). Invloed op verzoening bij chimpansees, Unpublished report, University of Utrecht.
Hand, J. L. (1986). Resolution of social conflicts: Dominance, egalitarianism, spheres of dominance and game theory. Q. Rev. Biol. 61: 201–220.
Kappeler, P. M. (1993). Reconciliation and post conflict behaviour in ring-tailed lemurs, Lemur catta, and redfronted lemurs, Eulemur fulvus rufus. Anim. Behav. 45: 901–915.
Kappeler, P. M., and van Schaik, C. P. (1992). Methodological and evolutionary aspects of reconciliation among primates. Ethology 92: 51–69.
Kruuk, H. (1972). The Spotted Hyena, University of Chicago Press, Chicago.
Kummer, H. (1978). On the value of social relationships to nonhuman primates: A heuristic scheme. Soc. Sci. Inf. 17: 687–705.
Matsumura, S. (1996). Postconflict affiliative contacts between former opponents among wild moor macaques (Macaca maurus). Am. J. Primatol. 38: 211–219.
Moynihan, M. (1998). The Social Regulation of Competition and Aggression in Animals. Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington.
Petit, O., and Thierry, B. (1994). Reconciliation in a group of black macaques. Dodo Wildl. Preserv. Trusts, 30: 89–95.
Preuschoft, S. (ed.). (1995). ‘Laughter’ and ‘smiling’ in Macaques-an EvolutionaryPerspective, University of Utrecht, Utrecht.
Preuschoft, S., and van Schaik, C. P. (2000). Dominance and communication: Conflict management in various social settings. In Aureli, F., and de Waal, F. B. M. (eds.), Natural Conflict Resolution, University of California Press, Berkeley, pp. 77–105.
Pusey, A., Williams, J., and Goodall, J. (1997). The influence of dominance rank on reproductive success in female chimpanzees. Science 277: 828–831.
Rasa, O. (1977). The ethology and sociology of the dwarf mongoose (Helogale undulata rufula). Z. Tierpsychol. 43: 337–406.
Schaller, G. B. (1972). The Serengeti Lion, University of Chicago Press, Chicago.
Schenkel, R. (1967). Submission: Its features and function in the wolf and dog. Am. Zool. 7: 319–329.
Schino, G. (2000). Beyond the Primates: Expanding the reconciliation horizon. In Aureli, F., and de Waal, F. B. M. (eds.), Natural Conflict Resolution, University of California Press, Berkeley, pp. 225–241.
Seyfarth, R., and Cheney, D. (1984). Grooming, alliances and reciprocal altruism in vervet monkeys. Nature 308: 541–542.
Siegel, S., and Castellan, N. J. (1988). Nonparametric Statistics, McGraw-Hill, New York.
Sterck, E. M., Watts, D., and van Schaik, C. P. (1997). The evolution of female social relationships in nonhuman primates. Behav. Ecol. Sociobiol. 41: 291–309.
Thierry, B. (2000). Covariation of conflict management patterns across macaque species. In Aureli, F., and de Waal, F.B. M. (eds.), Natural Conflict Resolution, University of California Press, Berkeley, pp. 106–154.
van Hooff, J. A. R. A. M. (1973). A structural analysis of the social behaviour in a semicaptive group of chimpanzees. In Vine, M. C. I. (ed.), Expressive Movement and Nonverbal Communication, Academic Press, London, pp. 75–161.
van Lawick-Goodall, J. (1968). The behavior of free-living chimpanzees at the Gombe Stream Reserve. Anim. Behav. Monogr. 1: 163–311.
van Schaik, C. P. (1989). The ecology of social relationships amongst female primates. In Standon, V., and Foley, R. (eds.), Comparative Socio-Ecology of Mammals and Humans, Blackwell, Oxford, pp. 195–218.
van Schaik, C. P. (1996). Social evolution in primates: The role of ecological factors and male behavior. Proc. Brit. Acad. 88: 9–31.
van Schaik, C. P. (1999). The socioecology of fission-fusion sociality in Orangutans. Primates 40: 69–86.
van Schaik, C. P., and Aureli, F. (2000). The natural history of valuable relationshihps in primates. In Aureli, F., and de Waal, F. B. M. (eds.), Natural Conflict Resolution, University of California Press, Berkeley, pp. 307–333.
Veenema, H., Das, M., and Aureli, F. (1994). Methodological improvements for the study of reconciliation. Behav. Proc. 31: 29–38.
Vehrencamp, S. (1983). Amodel for the evolution of despotic versus egalitarian societies. Anim. Behav. 31: 667–682.
Verbeek, P., and de Waal, F. B. M. (1997). Postconflict behavior of captive brown capuchins in the presence and absence of attractive food. Int. J. Primatol. 18: 703–725.
Watts, D. P. (1992). Social relationships of immigrant and resident female mountain gorillas. I. Male-female relationships. Am. J. Primatol. 28(3): 159–183.
Watts, D. P. (1995). Post-conflict social events in wild mountain gorillas (Mammalia, Hominoidea): I. Social interactions between opponents. Ethology 100: 139–157.
Wrangham, R.W. (1999). Evolution of coalitionary killing. Ybk. Phys. Anthrop. 42: 1–30.
Wrangham, R.W. (2000). Why are male chimpanzees more gregarious than mothers? Ascramble competition hypothesis. In Kappeler, P.M. (ed.), Primate Males, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp. 248–258.
York, A. D., and Rowell, T. E. (1988). Reconciliation following aggression in patas monkeys (Erythrocebus patas). Anim. Behav. 36: 502–509.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Preuschoft, S., Wang, X., Aureli, F. et al. Reconciliation in Captive Chimpanzees: A Reevaluation with Controlled Methods. International Journal of Primatology 23, 29–50 (2002). https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1013293623158
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1013293623158