Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Preventive Intervention Effects on Developmental Progression in Drug Use: Structural Equation Modeling Analyses Using Longitudinal Data

  • Published:
Prevention Science Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

This study examined the plausibility of the gateway hypothesis to account for drug involvement in a sample of middle school students participating in a drug abuse, prevention trial. Analyses focused on a single prevention approach to exemplify intervention effects on drug progression. Improvements to social competence reduced multiple drug use at 1- and 2-year follow-ups. Specific program effects disrupted drug progression by decreasing alcohol and cigarette use over 1 year and reducing cigarette use over a 2-year period. Controlling for previous drug use, alcohol was integrally involved in the progression to multiple drug use. Subgroup analyses based on distinctions of pretest use/nonuse of alcohol and cigarettes provided partial support for the gateway hypothesis. However, evidence also supported alternate pathways including cigarette use as a starting point for later alcohol and multiple drug use.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

REFERENCES

  • Alwin, D. F., & Hauser, R.M. (1975). The decomposition of effects in path analysis. American Sociological Review, 40, 37–47.

    Google Scholar 

  • Andrews, J. A., Hops, H., Ary, D., Lichtenstein, E., & Tildesley, E. (1991). The construction, validation and use of a Guttman scale of adolescent substance use: An investigation of family relationships. The Journal of Drug Issues, 21, 557–572.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bandura, A. (1977). Self-efficacy: Toward a unifying theory of behavioral change. Psychological Review, 84, 191–215.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bandura, A. (1982). Self-efficacy mechanism in human agency. American Psychologist, 37, 122–147.

    Google Scholar 

  • Barnea, Z., Rahav, G., & Teichman, M. (1987). The reliability and consistency of self-reports on substance use in a longitudinal study. British Journal of the Addictions, 82, 891–898.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bentler, P. M. (1995). EQS structural equations program manual. Encino, CA: Multivariate.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bentler, P. M. (1990a). Latent variable structural models for separating specific from general effects. In L. Sechrest, E. Perrin, & J. Bunker (Eds.), Research methodology: Strengthening causal interpretations of nonexperimental data (pp. 61–83). Rockville, MD: Department of Health and Human Services.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bentler, P. M. (1990b). Comparative fit indexes in structural models. Psychological Bulletin, 107, 238–246.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bentler, P. M., & Bonett, D. G. (1980). Significance tests and goodness of fit in the analysis of covariance structures. Psychological Bulletin, 88, 588–606.

    Google Scholar 

  • Botvin, G. J. (1983). Prevention of adolescent substance abuse through the development of personal and social competence. In T. J. Glynn, C.G. Luekefeld, & J. P. Ludford (Eds.), Preventing adolescent drug abuse: Intervention strategies (pp. 115–139). Rockville, MD: National Institute on Drug Abuse. Research Monograph 47 (DHHS Pub. No. ADM 83-1280).

    Google Scholar 

  • Botvin, G. J. (1995). Principles of prevention. In R. H. Coombs & D. M. Ziedonis (Eds.), Handbook on drug abuse prevention: A comprehensive strategy to prevent the abuse of alcohol and other drugs (pp. 19–44). Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon.

    Google Scholar 

  • Botvin, G. J., Baker, E., Dusenbury, L., Botvin, E., & Diaz, T. (1995a). Long-term follow-up of a randomized drug abuse prevention trial in a white middle-class population. JAMA, 273, 1106–1112.

    Google Scholar 

  • Botvin, G. J., Baker, E., Dusenbury, L., Tortu, S., & Botvin, E. M. (1990). Preventing adolescent drug abuse through a multimodal cognitive–behavioral approach: Results of a 3-year study. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 58, 437–446.

    Google Scholar 

  • Botvin, G. J., & Dusenbury, L. (1987). Life Skills Training: A psychoeducational approach to substance abuse prevention. In C. A. Maher & J. E. Zins (Eds.), Psychoeducational interventions in schools: Methods and procedures for enhancing student competence (pp. 46–65). New York: Pergamon Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Botvin, G. J., Dusenbury, L., Baker, E., James-Ortiz, S., & Botvin, E. M., & Kerner, J. (1992). Smoking prevention among urban minority youth: Assessing effects on outcome and mediating variables. Health Psychology, 11, 290–299.

    Google Scholar 

  • Botvin, G. J., & Eng, A. (1982). The efficacy of a multi-component approach to the prevention of cigarette smoking. Journal of Preventive Medicine, 11, 199–211.

    Google Scholar 

  • Botvin, G. J., Eng, A., & Williams, C. L. (1980). Preventing the onset of cigarette smoking through Life Skills Training. Preventive Medicine, 9, 135–143.

    Google Scholar 

  • Botvin, G. J., Griffin, K.W., Diaz. T., Scheier, L. M., Williams, C., & Epstein, J. A. (2000). Preventing illicit drug use in adolescents: Long-term follow-up data from a randomized control trial of a school population. Addictive Behaviors, 25, 769–774.

    Google Scholar 

  • Botvin, G. J., Schinke, S. P., Epstein, J. A., Diaz, T., & Botvin, E. M. (1995c). Effectiveness of culturally focused and generic skills training approaches to alcohol and drug abuse prevention among minority adolescents: Two-year follow-up results. Psychology of Addictive Behaviors, 9, 183–194.

    Google Scholar 

  • Botvin, G. J., & Tortu, S. (1988). Preventing adolescent substance abuse through life skills training. In R. H. Price, E. L. Cowan, R. P. Lorion, & J. R. McKay (Eds.), Fourteen ounces of prevention: A casebook for practitioners (pp. 98–110). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.

    Google Scholar 

  • Chou, C.-P., & Bentler, P. M. (1990). Model modification in covariance structure modeling: A comparison among likelihood ratio, Lagrange multiplier, andWald tests. Multivariate Behavioral Research, 25, 115–136.

    Google Scholar 

  • Collins, L. M., Graham, J. W., Rousculp, S. S., Fidler, P. L., Pan, J., & Hansen, W. B. (1994). Latent transition analysis and how it can address prevention research questions. In L. M. Collins & L. Seitz (Eds.), Advances in data analysis for prevention intervention research. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office. NIDA Research Monograph No. 142.

    Google Scholar 

  • Collins, L. M., Graham, J. W., Rousculp, S. S., & Hansen, W. B. (1997). Heavy caffeine use and the beginning of the substance use onset process: An illustration of latent transition analysis. In K. J. Bryant, M. Windle, & S. G. West (Eds.), The science of prevention: Methodological advances from alcohol and substance abuse research (pp. 79–99). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cronbach, L. J. (1951). Coefficient alpha and the internal structure of tests. Psychometrika, 16, 297–334.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dempster, A. P., Laird, N. M., & Rubin, D. B. (1977). Maximum likelihood from incomplete data via theEMalgorithm. Journal of the Royal Statistical Society, Series B, 39, 1–38.

    Google Scholar 

  • Donovan, J. E., & Jessor, R. (1983). Problem drinking and the dimension of involvement with drugs: A Guttman scalogram analysis of adolescent drug use. American Journal of Public Health, 73, 543–552.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ellickson, P. L., Hays, R.D., & Bell, R. M. (1993). Stepping through the drug use sequence: Longitudinal scalogram analysis of initiation and regular use. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 101, 441–451.

    Google Scholar 

  • Eysenck, H. J., & Eysenck, S. B. G. (1975). Manual of the Eysenck personality questionnaire. London: Hodder & Stoughton.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fleming, R., Leventhal, H., Glynn, K., & Ershler, J. (1989). The role of cigarettes in the initiation and progression of early substance use. Addictive Behaviors, 14, 261–272.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gambrill, E. D., & Richey, C. A. (1975). An assertion inventory for use in assessment and research. Behavior Therapy, 6, 550–561.

    Google Scholar 

  • Graham, J. W., Collins, L. M., Wugalter, S. E., Chung, N. K., & Hansen, W. B. (1991). Modeling transitions in latent stagesequential processes: A substance use prevention example. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 59, 48–57.

    Google Scholar 

  • Graham, J.W., Hofer, S. M., & MacKinnon, D. P. (1996). Maximizing the usefulness of data obtained with planned missing value patterns: An application of maximum likelihood procedures. Multivariate Behavioral Research, 31, 197–218.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gfroerer, J. (1985). Influence of privacy on self-reported drug use by youths. In B. A. Rouse, N. J. Kozel, & L.G. Richards (Eds.), Self-report methods of estimating drug use: Current challenges to validity (pp. 22–30).Washington, DC: Government Printing Office. DHHS Publication No. ADM 85-1402.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hamburg, B. A., Kraemer, H. C., & Jahnke, W. (1975). A hierarchy of drug use in adolescence: Behavioral and attitudinal correlates of substantial drug use. American Journal of Psychiatry, 132, 1155–1163.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hansen, W. B., & Graham, J. W. (1991). Preventing alcohol, marijuana, and cigarette use among adolescents: Peer pressure resistance training versus establishing conservative norms. Preventive Medicine, 20, 414–430.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hansen, W. B., Graham, J. W., Wolkenstein, B. H., Lundy, B. Z., Pearson, J., Flay, B. R., & Johnson, C. A. (1988). Differential impact of three alcohol prevention curricula on hypothesized mediating variables. Journal of Drug Education, 18, 143–153.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hays, R. D., Widaman, K. F., DiMatteo, M. R., & Stacy, A. W. (1987). Structural-equation models of current drug use: Are appropriate models so simple(x)? Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 52, 134–144.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hays, R. D., Stacy, A. W., Widaman, K. F., DiMatteo, M. R., & Downey, R. (1986). Multistage path models of adolescent alcohol and drug use: A reanalysis. The Journal of Drug Issues, 16, 357–369.

    Google Scholar 

  • Henderson, M., & Furnham, A. (1983). Dimensions of assertiveness: Factor analysis of five assertion inventories. Journal of Behavioral and Experimental Psychiatry, 14, 223–231.

    Google Scholar 

  • Huba, G. J., & Bentler, P. M. (1983). Test of drug use causal model using asymptotically distribution free methods. Journal of Drug Education, 13, 3–14.

    Google Scholar 

  • Huba, G. J., & Harlow, L. L. (1987). Robust structural equation models: Implications for developmental psychology. Child Development, 58, 147–166.

    Google Scholar 

  • Huba, G. J., Wingard, J. A., & Bentler, P. M. (1981). A comparison of two latent variable causal models for adolescent drug use. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 40, 180–193.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jessor, R., & Jessor, S. L. (1977). Problem behavior and psychosocial development: A longitudinal study of youth. New York: Academic Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Johnston, L. D., O'Malley, P. M., & Bachman, J. G. (1999). National survey results on drug use from the monitoring the future study, 1975–1995. Vol. I: Secondary school students. Washington, DC: Government Printing Office. National Institute on Drug Abuse (NIH Pub. No. 99-4139).

    Google Scholar 

  • Kandel, D. B. (1975). Stages in adolescent involvement in drug use. Science, 190, 912–914.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kandel, D. B., & Faust, R. (1975). Sequence and stages in patterns of adolescent drug use. Archives of General Psychiatry, 32, 923–932.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kandel, D. B., & Logan, J. A. (1984). Patterns of drug use from adolescence to young adulthood: I. Periods of risk for initiation, continued use, and discontinuation. American Journal of Public Health, 74, 660–666.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kandel, D. B., Treiman, D., Faust, R., & Single, E. (1976). Adolescent involvement in legal and illegal drug use: A multiple classification analysis. Social Forces, 55, 438–458.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kandel, D. B., & Yamaguchi, K. (1985). Developmental patterns of the use of legal, illegal, and medically prescribed psychotropic drugs from adolescence to young adulthood. In C. L. Jones & R. J. Battjes (Eds.), Etiology of drug abuse: Implications for prevention. Rockville, MD: National Institute on Drug Abuse. Research Monograph No. 56.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kandel, D. B., Yamaguchi, K., & Chen, K. (1992). Stages of progression in drug involvement from adolescence to adulthood: Further evidence for the gateway theory. Journal of Studies on Alcohol, 53, 447–457.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kandel, D. B., & Yamaguchi, K. (1993). From beer to crack: Developmental patterns of drug involvement. American Journal of Public Health, 83, 851–855.

    Google Scholar 

  • Krull, J. L., & MacKinnon, D. P. (1999). Multilevel mediation modeling in group-based intervention studies. Evaluation Review, 23, 418–444.

    Google Scholar 

  • MacCallum, R. C., Roznowski, M., & Necowitz, L. B. (1992). Model modifications in covariance structure analysis: The problem of capitalization on chance. Psychological Bulletin, 111, 490–504.

    Google Scholar 

  • Murray, D. M. (1998). Design and analysis of group-randomized trials. New York: Oxford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Newcomb, M. D. (1992). Understanding the multidimensional nature of drug use and abuse: The role of consumption, risk factors, and protective factors. In M. Glantz & R. Pickens (Eds.), Vulnerability to drug abuse (pp. 288–297).Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.

    Google Scholar 

  • Newcomb, M. D. (1994). Drug use and intimate relationships among women and men: Separating specific from general effects in prospective data using structural equation models. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 62, 463–476.

    Google Scholar 

  • Newcomb, M. D., & Bentler, P.M. (1986). Frequency and sequence of drug use: A longitudinal study from early adolescence to young adulthood. Journal of Drug Education, 16, 101–120.

    Google Scholar 

  • Newcomb, M. D., & Bentler, P. M. (1988). tConsequences of teenage drug use: Impact on the lives of young adults. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage Publications.

    Google Scholar 

  • O'Malley, P. M., Bachman, J. G., & Johnston, L. D. (1984). Reliability and consistency in self-reports of drug use. International Journal of the Addictions, 18, 805–824.

    Google Scholar 

  • Pentz, M. A., & Chou, C.-P. (1994). Measurement invariance in longitudinal clinical research assuming change from development and intervention. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 62, 450–462.

    Google Scholar 

  • Potvin, R. H., & Lee, C.-F. (1980). Multistage path models of adolescent alcohol and drug use: Age variations. Journal of Studies on Alcohol, 41, 531–541.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rubin, D. B. (1987). Multiple imputation for nonresponse in surveys. New York: Wiley.

    Google Scholar 

  • Single, E., Kandel, D. B., & Faust, R. (1974). Patterns of multiple drug use in high school. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 15, 344–357.

    Google Scholar 

  • Spoth, R., Reyes, M. L., Redmond, C., & Shin, C. (1999). Assessing a public health approach to delay onset and progression of adolescent substance use: Latent transition and log-linear analyses of longitudinal family preventive intervention outcomes. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 67, 619–630.

    Google Scholar 

  • Stacy, A.W., Widaman, K. F., Hays, R., & DiMatteo, M. R. (1985). Validity of self-reports of alcohol and other drug use: A multitrait-multimethod assessment. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 49, 219–232.

    Google Scholar 

  • Steiger, J. H., & Lind, J. M. (1980). Statistically based tests for the number of common factors. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the Psychometric Society, Iowa City, IA, May, 1980.

  • Waters, E., & Sroufe, L. A. (1983). Social competence as a developmental construct. Developmental Review, 3, 79–97.

    Google Scholar 

  • Welte, J.W., & Barnes, G.M. (1985). Alcohol: the gateway to other drug use among secondary-school students. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 14, 487–498.

    Google Scholar 

  • Werts, C. F., Linn, R. L., & Jöreskog, K. G. (1974). Intraclass reliability estimates: Testing structural assumptions. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 34, 25–33.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wills, T. A., Baker, E., & Botvin, G. J. (1989). Dimensions of assertiveness: Differential relationships to substance use in early adolescence. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 57, 473–478.

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Public Health, Institute for Prevention Research, Weill Medical College of Cornell University, New York, New York

    Lawrence M. Scheier, Gilbert J. Botvin & Kenneth W. Griffin

Authors
  1. Lawrence M. Scheier
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Gilbert J. Botvin
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Kenneth W. Griffin
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Scheier, L.M., Botvin, G.J. & Griffin, K.W. Preventive Intervention Effects on Developmental Progression in Drug Use: Structural Equation Modeling Analyses Using Longitudinal Data. Prev Sci 2, 91–112 (2001). https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1011543730566

Download citation

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1011543730566

Search

Navigation