Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

1,1,1-Trichloroethane Marine Risk Assessment with Special Reference to the Osparcom Region: North Sea

  • Published:
Environmental Monitoring and Assessment Aims and scope Submit manuscript

    We’re sorry, something doesn't seem to be working properly.

    Please try refreshing the page. If that doesn't work, please contact support so we can address the problem.

Abstract

This risk assessment on 1,1,1-trichloroethane was carried out specifically for the marine environment, accordingly to the methodology laid down in the EU risk assessment Regulation (1488/94) and the Guidance Document of the EU New and Existing Substances Regulation (TGD, 1996). 1,1,1-trichloroethane is being phased out of most uses because of its ozone depletion potential (ODP) under the Montreal Protocol. Production for emissive uses has already been phased out end 1995 in Europe and 1996 in the United States, Japan and other industrial countries. The risk assessment study consists of the collection and evaluation of data on effects and environmental concentrations from analytical monitoring programmes in large rivers and estuaries in the North Sea area. The risk is indicated by the ratio of the Predicted Environmental Concentration (PEC) and the Predicted No-Effect Concentration (PNEC) for the marine aquatic environment. In total 14 studies for fish, 7 studies for invertebrates and 9 studies for algae have been evaluated. Both acute and chronic studies have been taken into account and the appropriate assessment factors have been used to calculate a PNEC value of 21 μg/l based on long term exposure. The PEC was derived from monitoring data. The PEC was set at 0.206 μg/l (worst case) and 0.024 μg/l (typical case) for coastal waters and estuaries and 0.6 μg/l (worst case) and <0.1 μg/l (typical case) for river waters. The calculated PEC/PNEC ratios, which do not take into account any dilution factor within the sea, correspond to a safety margin of 35 to 1000 between the aquatic effect and the exposure concentration. 1,1,1-trichloroethane is not a ‘toxic, persistent and liable to bioaccumulate’ substance according to the criteria as mentioned by the Oslo and Paris Conventions for the Prevention of Marine Pollution (OSPAR-DYNAMEC). It can be concluded that the present use of 1,1,1-trichloroethane does not present a risk to the marine aquatic environment.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Abernethy, S., Bobra, A. M., Shiu, W. Y., Wells, P. G. and MacKay, D.: 1986, ‘Acute lethal toxicity of hydrocarbons and chlorinated hydrocarbons to two planktonic crustaceans: The key role of organism-water partitioning’, Aquat. Toxicol. 8, 163-174.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Abrahamsson, K. and Klick, S.: 1989, ‘Distribution and fate of halogenated substances in an anoxic marine environment’, Chemosphere 18(11/12), 2247-2256.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Agence de Bassin Seine Normandie: 1995, Personal Communication.

  • Alexander, H. C., McCarty, W. M. and Bartlett, E. A.: 1978, ‘Toxicity of perchloroethylene, trichloroethylene, 1,1,1-trichoroethane, and methylene chloride to fathead minnow’, Bull. Environ. Contam. Toxicol. 20, 344-352.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • ARGE Elbe: 1993, ‘Wassergütedaten der Elbe von Schnackenburg bis zur See., Zahlentafel 1992’, Arbeitsgemeinschaft für die Reinhaltung der Elbe, Wassergütestelle Elbe, Hamburg, 64-65, 78-79, 99, 108, 126-135.

    Google Scholar 

  • ARW: 1991, ‘Bericht der Arbeitsgemeinschaft Rhein-Wasserwerke e.V., DVGW-Forschungstelle am Engler-Bunte’, Institut der Universität Karlsruhe (TH), Bereich Wasserchemie, Karlsruhe, Jahresbericht 91. 48, 192-199.

    Google Scholar 

  • Atri, F. R.: 1985, Chlorierte Kohlenwasserstoffe in der Umwelt II, Gustav Fischer, Stuttgart, New York, ISBN-3-437-30516-6.

    Google Scholar 

  • AWBR: 1988, ‘Ergebnisse der Physikalischen, Chemischen, Biologischen und Bakteriologischen Untersuchungen’, Bericht der Arbeitsgemeinschaft Wasserwerke Bodensee-Rhein, Karlsruhe, 20, 109, 190, 193, 196.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ballschmiter, K., Haltrich, W., Kühn, W. and Niemitz, W.: 1988, HOV-studie-Halogenorganische Verbindungen in Wässern, Fachgruppe Wasserchemie in der GDCh. Druck: Integra-Services GmbH, Berlin.

    Google Scholar 

  • Banerjee, S., Yalkowsky, S. H. and Valvani, S. C.: 1980, ‘Water solubility and octanol/water partition coefficients of organics. Limitations of the solubility-partition coefficient correlation’, Amer. Chem. Soc. 14, 1227-1229.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Bianchi, A. P., Varney, M. S. and Phillips, J.: 1991, ‘Analysis of volatile organic compounds in estuarine sediments using dynamic headspace and gas chromatography-mass spectrometry’, J. Chromatogr. 542, 413-450.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Bobra, A. M., Shiu, W. Y. and MacKay, D.: 1984, ‘Structure-Activity Relationships for Toxicity of Hydrocarbons, Chlorinated Hydrocarbons and Oils to Daphnia magna’, K. L. E. Kaiser (ed.), Quantitative Structure Activity Relations in Environmental Toxicology, D. Reidel Publishing Co., Dordrecht, The Netherlands, pp. 3-16.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bohlen, H., Hicke, K., Stöbel, A.-O., Zierott, M. and Thiemann, W.: 1989, ‘Die Belastung der Unterweser im Bremischen Raum mit Halogenorganika und Phosphorsäureestern’, Vom Wasser. 72, 185-197.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Bouwer, E. J. and McCarthy, P. L.: 1983, ‘Transformations of 1- and 2-carbon halogenated aliphatic organic compounds under methanogenic conditions’, Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 45, 1286-1294.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Bouwer, E. J., Rittman, B. E. and McCarty, P. L.: 1981, ‘Anaerobic degradation of halogenated 1- and 2-carbon organic compounds’, Environ. Sci. Technol. 15, 5.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Brack, W. and Rottler, H.: 1994, ‘Toxicity testing of highly volatile chemicals with green algae-A new assay’, research articles, Environ Sci. Pollut. Res. 1(4), 223-228.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Bringmann, G. and Kühn, R.: 1978, ‘Testing of substance for their toxicity threshold: Model organisms Microcystis (Diplocystis) aeruginosa and Scenedesmus quadricauda’, Mitt. Internal. Verein. Limnol. 21, 275-284.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Bringmann, G. and Kühn, R.: 1980, ‘Comparison of the toxicity thresholds of water pollutants to bacteria, algae and protozoa in the cell multiplication inhibition test’, Water Res. 14, 231-241.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Bringmann, G. and Kühn, R.: 1982, ‘Ergebnisse der Schadwirkung wassergefährdender Stoffe gegen Daphnia magna in einem weiterentwickelten standardisiertes Testverfahren’, Z. f. Wasser- und Abwasser-Forschung 15(1), 1-6.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Brooke, L. T. et al. (eds): 1985-1988, ‘Acute toxicities of organic chemicals to fathead minnows (Pimephales promelas), Vols. I, II, III and IV’, Center for Lake Superior Environmental Studies, University of Winconsin-Superior.

  • Buccafusco, R. J., Ells, S. J. and LeBlanc, G. A.: 1981, ‘Acute toxicity of priority pollutants to bluegill (Lepomis macrochirus)’, Bull. Environ. Contam. Toxicol. 26, 446-452.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Callahan, M. A. et al.: 1979, ‘Water-related Environmental Fate of 129 Priority Pollutants, Vol. II,’ EPA 440/4-79-029B, 45-1 to 45-12.

  • CITI (Chemicals Inspection and Testing Institute): 1992, Biodegradation and Bioaccumulation Data of Existing Chemicals Based on dth, CSL JAPAN, Japan.

    Google Scholar 

  • Davies, R. P. and Dobbs, A. J.: 1984, ‘The prediction of bioconcentration in fish’, Water Res. 18, 1253-1562.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Dawes, V. J. and Waldock, M. J.: 1994, ‘Measurement of volatile organic compounds at U.K. national monitoring plan stations’, Marine pollut. Bull. 28(5), 291-298.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • De Wolf, W., Canton, J. H., Hermens, J., Mathijssen-Spiekman, E. A. M. and Wegman, R. C. C.: 1986, ‘Chronische Toxiciteit van Mengsels en Struktuuraktiviteitsrelaties van Chemicaliën voor Daphnia magna en de Reproduceerbaarheid van deze Gegevens’, RIVM Report No. 842052001.

  • Dewulf, J. and Van Langehove, H.: 1997, ‘Chlorinated C1- and C2-hydrocarbons and monocyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in marine waters: An overview of fate processes, sampling, analysis and measurements’, Water Res. 31(8), 1825.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Dilling, W. L. et al.: 1976, ‘Dissociation photochimique simulée du dichlormethane methylchloroforme, tri- et perchlorethyelene et autres composés/Pollution de l'Air’, Environ. Sci. Technol. 10, 351-355.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Dilling, W. L., Tefertiller, N. B. and Kallos, G. J.: 1975, ‘Evaporation rates and reactivities of methylene chloride, chloroform, 1,1,1-trichloroethane, trichloroethylene, tetrachloroethylene, and other chlorinated compounds in dilute aqueous solutions’, Environ. Sci. Technol. 9, 833-838.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • ECETOC: 2001, ‘Risk Assessment in Marine Environments’, Technical Report No. 82, Brussels 2001, pp. 141, ISSN 0773-8072-82.

  • ECSA (European Chlorinated Solvent Association): 1996, Personal Communication.

  • Euro Chlor: 2001, Personal Communication from the COCEM group.

  • Fahrni, H. P.: 1984, ‘Leichtflüchtige Chlorierte Kohlenwasserstoffe in Schweizer Gewässern’, Gas, Wasser, Abwasser 64(11), 689-695.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Fogelqvist, E.: 1985, ‘Carbon tetrachloride, tetrachloroethylene, 1,1,1-trichloroethane and bromoform in Arctic sea water’, J. Geophys. Res. C: Oceans. 90(C5), 9181-9193.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Gewässergütebericht: 1986, ‘Herausgeber’, Landesamt für Wasser und Abfall Nordrhein-Westfalen, Düsseldorf, 1987.

    Google Scholar 

  • Heitmuller, P. T., Hollister, T. A. and Parrish, P. R.: 1981, ‘Acute toxicity of 54 industrial chemicals to sheepshead minnows (Cyprinodon variegatus)’, Bull. Environ. Contam. Toxicol. 17, 596-604.

    Google Scholar 

  • Houghton, J. T., Meira, L. G., Filho, B. A., Callander, N., Harris, A., Kattenberg and Maskell, K. (eds): 1996, ‘IPCC (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change) (1996)’, Climate Change 1995-The Science of Climate Change, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, U.K.

  • Hutchinson, T. C., Hellebust, J. A., Tam, D., MacKay, R. A., Mascarenhas and Shiu, W. Y.: 1980, ‘The correlation of the toxicity to algae of hydrocarbons and halogenated hydrocarbons with their physical-chemical properties’, Environ. Sci. Res. 1, 577-586.

    Google Scholar 

  • IAWR: 1991, ‘Rheinbericht '88-'90’, Internationale Arbeitsgemeinschaft der Wasserwerke im Rheineinzugsgebiet, Amsterdam, pp. 106-107.

    Google Scholar 

  • IUCLID: 1996, Public Data on High Volume Chemicals, 1st ed., Joint Research Centre, European Chemicals Bureau, Ispra, Italy.

    Google Scholar 

  • Juhnke, I. and Luedemann, D.: 1978, ‘Ergebnisse der Untersuchung von 200 Chemischen Verbindungen auf akute Fischtoxizität mit dem Goldorfentest’, Z. Wasser Abwasser Forsch. 11, 161-164.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Könemann, H.: 1981, ‘Quantitative structure-activity relationships in fish toxicity studies, Part 1, Relationship for 50 industrial pollutants’, Toxicology. 19, 209-221.

    Google Scholar 

  • Krebs, F.: 1985, ‘UFO-Plan 105 05 115, Forschungsbericht FB 85-126’, Umweltbundesamt.

  • Krijsell, M. and Nightingale, P. D.: 1993, ‘Low molecular weight halocarbons in the Humber and Rhine estuaries determined using a new purge and trap gas chromatographic method’, Continental Shelf Res..

  • Krijsell, M. and Wallace, D. W. R.: 1988, ‘Arctic ocean ventilation studied with a suite of anthropogenic halocarbon tracers’, Science 242, 746-749.

    Google Scholar 

  • LeBlanc, G. A.: 1980, ‘Acute toxicity of priority pollutants to water flea (Daphnia magna)’, Bull. Environ. Contam. Toxicol. 24, 684-691.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • LWA: 1987, ‘Gewässergütebericht '86’, Landesamt für Wasser und Abfall Nordrhein-Westfalen, Düsseldorf, 32.

  • LWA: 1988a, ‘Gewässergütebericht '87’, Landesamt für Wasser und Abfall Nordrhein-Westfalen, Düsseldorf, 23, 78-79.

  • LWA: 1988b, ‘Grundwasserbericht '87’, Landesamt für Wasser und Abfall Nordrhein-Westfalen, Düsseldorf, 24-25.

  • LWA: 1989, Rheingütebericht NRW '88', Landesamt für Wasser und Abfall Nordrhein-Westfalen, Düsseldorf, 23, Anhang II.

  • LWA: 1990, ‘Gewässergütebericht '89’, Landesamt für Wasser und Abfall Nordrhein-Westfalen, Düsseldorf, 24, 52-54, 105, Anhang.

    Google Scholar 

  • LWA: 1991, ‘Rheingütebericht NRW '90’, Landesamt für Wasser und Abfall Nordrhein-Westfalen, Düsseldorf, 17, 68, Anhang II.

    Google Scholar 

  • LWA: 1992, ‘Gewässergütebericht '91’, Landesamt für Wasser und Abfall Nordrhein-Westfalen, Düsseldorf, 37, 50, 54, Anhang II.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lyman, W. J., Reehl, W. F. and Rosenblatt, D. H.: 1982, Handbook of Chemical Property Estimation Methods, Environmental Behaviour of Organic Compounds, McGraw Hill Book Co., NY, pp. 4-9.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mackay, D. and Patterson, S.: 1990, ‘Fugacity Models’, W. Karcher and J. Devillers (eds), Practical Applications of Quantitative Structure-Activity Relations in Environmental Chemistry and Toxicology, pp. 433-460.

  • Malle, K. G.: 1987, ‘Der Rhein mußleben!’, wlb-Wasser, Luft und Betrieb. 11-12/1987, 22/23.

  • Marchand, M., Caprais, J. C., Tronczynski, J., Marty, J. C., Scribe, P. and Saliot, A.: 1986, ‘Processus de transport et flux des hydrocarbures et hydrocarbures halogénés dans l'estuaire de la Loire’, Rapp. P.-v. Réun. Cons. Int. Explor. Mer. 186, 361-374.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • McCarthy, P. L. et al.: 1984, in G. Bitton and C. P. Grerba (eds), Groundwater Pollution Microbiology, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York, pp. 89-115.

    Google Scholar 

  • Midgley, P. and McCulloch, A.: 1998, International Regulations on Halocarbons, Ch 8 of the Handbook of Environmental Chemistry, Vol. 4, Part E, P. Fabian and O. N. Singh (eds), Springer-Verlag, Heidelberg.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ott, W.: 1990, ‘Orientierende Messungen auf gefährliche organische Stoffe in hessische Oberflächengewässern, Untersuchungszeitraum 1985 bis 1989’, Umwelt: Politik-Technik-Recht. Verlag E. Schmidt, Berlin. 273-281.

    Google Scholar 

  • Pearson, C. R. and McConnell, G.: 1975, ‘Chlorinated C1 and C2 hydrocarbons in the marine environment’, Proc. R. Soc. Lond. B189, 305-332.

    Google Scholar 

  • Pedersen, F., Tyle, H., Niemelä, J. R., Guttmann, B., Lander, L. and Wedebrand, A.: 1994, ‘Environmental Hazard Classification-Data collection and interpretation guide’, TemaNord. 1994, 589.

    Google Scholar 

  • Prinn, R. G., Weiss, R. F., Miller, B. R., Huang, J., Alyea, F. N., Cunnold, D. M., Fraser, P. J., Hartley, D. E. and Simmonds, P. G.: 1995, ‘Atmospheric trends and lifetime of CH3CCl3 and global OH concentrations’, Science 269, 187-192.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Rijkswaterstaat: 1994, ‘Verklaring van gebruikte afkortingen in Terneuzen, Vlissingen en Doel in 1994’, Ministerie van Verkeer en Waterstaat, Directoraat-Generaal Rijkswaterstaat, Middelburg.

    Google Scholar 

  • RIVM: 1993, ‘Monitoring of Radioactivity and Xenobiotic Substances in the Environment’, The Netherlands, 1991, Bilthoven, The Netherlands.

    Google Scholar 

  • RIWA: 1992, ‘Samenwerkende Rijn- en Maas-waterleidingbedrijven’, Samenstelling van het Rijnwater in 1989.

  • RIWA: 1993, ‘Samenwerkende Rijn- en Maas-waterleidingbedrijven’, Samenstelling van het Rijnwater in 1990-1991.

  • RIWA: 1994, ‘Association des services d'eau du Rhin et de la Meuse’, Tome B Meuse, 1992.

  • RIWA: 1995, ‘Association des services d'eau du Rhin et de la Meuse’, Tome B Meuse, 1993.

  • RIWA: 1996a, ‘Association des services d'eau du Rhin et de la Meuse’, Tome B Meuse, 1994.

  • RIWA: 1996b, ‘Association des services d'eau du Rhin et de la Meuse’, Tome B Meuse, 1995.

  • Röderer, G.: 1990, ‘UFO-Plan 106 07 071/01’, Forschungsbericht Umweltbundesambt FB, 91, 35.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rogers, H. R., Crathorne, B. and Watts, C. D.: 1992, ‘Sources and fate of organic contaminants in the Mersey estuary: Volatile organohalogen compounds’, Marine Poll. Bull. 24, 82-91.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Sénchez-Fortún, S., Sanz, F., Santa-Maria, A., Ros, J. M., De Vicente, M. L., Encinas, M. T., Vinagre, E. and Barahona, M. V.: 1997, ‘Acute sensitivity of three age classes of Artemia salina larvae to seven chlorinated solvents’, Bull. Environ. Contam. Toxicol. 59, 445-451.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tabak, H. H., Quave, S. A. and Barth, E. F.: 1981, ‘Biodegradability studies with organic priority pollutant compounds’, J. Water Pollut. Contr. Fed. 53, 1503-1518.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • TGD: 1996, ‘Technical Guidance Documents in Support of the Commission Directive 93/67/EEC on Risk Assessment for New Notified Substances and the Commission Regulation (EC) 94/1488/EEC on Risk Assessment for Existing Substances (Parts I, II, III and IV)’, EC Catalogue numbers CR-48-96-001-EN-C, CR-48-96-002-EN-C, CR-48-96-003-EN-C, CR-48-96-004-ENC.

  • Thompson, R. S. and Carmichael, N. G.: 1989, ‘1,1,1-Trichloroethane: Medium-term toxicity to carp, daphnids and higher plants’, Ecotoxicol. Environ. Saf. 17, 172-182.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Trapp, S., Brüggemann, R., Kalbfus, W. and Frey, S.: 1992, ‘Organische und Anorganische Stoffe im Main’, GWF-Wasser/Abwasser 133, 495-504.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • U.K. Environmental Agency: 1997, Personal Communication to ICI.

  • U.S. EPA: 1978, ‘In-depth studies on health and environmental impacts on selected water pollutants’, U.S. Environ. Prot. Agency. Contract No. 68-01-4646, PB83-263665.

  • U.S. EPA: 1980, ‘Ambient water quality criteria for chlorinated ethanes’, Washington, DC, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). 440, 5-80-029.

  • Van de Graaff, S.: 1988, ‘Dynamik leichtflüchtiger halogenischer Verbindungen auf Kläranlagen’, Münch. Beitr. Abwasser, Fish-, Flussbiologie 42, 151-155.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Van de Meent, D., Den Hollander, H. A., Pool, W. G., Vredenbregt, M. J., Van Oers, H. A. M., De Greef, E. and Luyten, J. A.: 1986, ‘Organic micropollutants in Dutch coastal waters’, Wat. Sci. Techn. 18, 73-81.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Wakeham, S. G., Davic, A. C. and Karas, J. L.: 1983, ‘Mesocosm experiments to determine the fate and persistence of volatile organic compounds in coastal seawater’, Environ. Sci. Technol. 17, 611-617.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Weser Gütebericht: 1993, ‘Arbeitsgemeinschaft zur Reinhaltung der Weser (ARGE Weser)’.

  • Wilson, J. T., McNabb, J. F., Wilson, B. H. and Noonan, M. J.: 1983, ‘Biotransformation of selected organic pollutants in ground water’, Devel. Ind. Microbiol. 24, 125-133.

    Google Scholar 

  • WMO (WorldMeteorological Organization): 1994, 'Global Ozone Research and Monitoring Project, Report No. 37, Scientific Assessment of Ozone Depletion', WMO Geneva, Chapter 13.

  • WRc: 1998, 'Collation and evaluation of European Monitoring Data on Mercury and Chlorinated Compounds', Report CO4517 for Euro Chlor.

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Solvay SA, Brussels, Belgium

    Christ De Rooij & Christine Defourny

  2. AstraZeneca, Brixham Environmental Laboratory, Freshwater Quarry, Brixham, Devon, United Kingdom

    Roy S. Thompson

  3. Euro Chlor, Brussels, Belgium

    Veronique Garny, André Lecloux & Dolf Van Wijk

  4. Akzo Nobel Chemicals Research, Environmental Chemistry, Arnhem, The Netherlands

    Dolf Van Wijk

Authors
  1. Christ De Rooij
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Christine Defourny
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Roy S. Thompson
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Veronique Garny
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  5. André Lecloux
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  6. Dolf Van Wijk
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Christ De Rooij.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

De Rooij, C., Defourny, C., Thompson, R.S. et al. 1,1,1-Trichloroethane Marine Risk Assessment with Special Reference to the Osparcom Region: North Sea. Environ Monit Assess 97, 39–56 (2004). https://doi.org/10.1023/B:EMAS.0000033041.34528.ff

Download citation

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1023/B:EMAS.0000033041.34528.ff

Search

Navigation