Abstract
Research on ischemic brain injury has established a central role of mitochondria in neuron death (1–3). Astrocytes are also damaged by ischemia (4), although the participation of mitochondria in their injury is ill defined. As astrocytes are responsible for neuronal metabolic and trophic support, astrocyte dysfunction (5) will compromise postischemic neuronal survival. Ischemic alterations to astrocyte energy metabolism and the uptake and metabolism of the excitatory amino acid transmitter glutamate may be particularly important. Despite the significance of ischemic astrocyte injury, little is known of the mechanisms responsible for astrocyte death and dysfunction. This review focuses on differences between astrocyte and neuronal metabolism and mitochondrial function, and on neuronal–glial interactions. The potential for astrocyte mitochondria to serve as targets of neuroprotective interventions is also discussed.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Kristian, T. and Siesjo, B. K. 1998. Calcium in ischemic cell death. Stroke 29:705–718.
Fiskum, G., Murphy, A. N., and Beal, M. F. 1999. Mitochondria in neurodegeneration: Acute ischemia and chronic neurodegenerative diseases. J. Cereb. Blood Flow Metab. 19:351–369.
Lipton, P. 1999. Ischemic cell death in brain neurons. Physiol. Rev. 79:1431–1568.
Petito, C. K., Olarte, J. P., Roberts, B., Nowak, T. S. J., and Pulsinelli, W. A. 1998. Selective glial vulnerability following transient global ischemia in rat brain. J. Neuropathol. Exp. Neurol. 57:231–238.
Liu, D., Smith, C. L., Barone, F. C., Ellison, J. A., Lysko, P. G., Li, K., and Simpson, I. A. 1999. Astrocytic demise precedes delayed neuronal death in focal ischemic rat brain. Brain Res. Mol. Brain Res. 68:29–41.
Erecinska, M. and Silver, I. A. 1994. Ions and energy in mammalian brain. Prog. Neurobiol. 43:37–71.
Hansen, A. J. 1985. Effect of anoxia on ion distribution in the brain. Physiol Rev. 65:101–148.
Chol, D. W. 1988. Glutamate neurotoxicity and diseases of the nervous system. Neuron 1:623–634.
Morley, P., Hogan, M. J., and Hakim, A. M. 1994. Calcium-mediated mechanisms of ischemic injury and protection. Brain Pathol. 4:37–47.
Siesjo, B. K., Katsura, K., Zhao, Q., Folbergrova, J., Pahlmark, K., Siesjo, P., and Smith, M. L. 1995. Mechanisms of secondary brain damage in global and focal ischemia: A speculative synthesis. J. Neurotrauma 12:943–956.
Tymianski, M. and Tator, C. H. 1996. Normal and abnormal calcium homeostasis in neurons: A basis for the pathophysiology of traumatic and ischemic central nervous system injury. Neurosurgery 38:1176–1195.
Budd, S. L. and Nicholls, D. G. 1996. Mitochondria, calcium regulation, and acute glutamate excitotoxicity in cultured cerebellar granule cells. J. Neurochem. 67:2282–2291.
Bondarenko, A. and Chesler, M. 2001. Calcium dependence of rapid astrocyte death induced by transient hypoxia, acidosis, and extracellular ion shifts. Glia 34:143–149.
Fiskum, G. 2000. Mitochondrial participation in ischemic and traumatic neural cell death. J. Neurotrauma 17:843–855.
Silver, I. A. and Erecinska, M. 1992. Ion homeostasis in rat brain in vivo: Intra-and extracellular [Ca2+] and [H+] in the hippocampus during recovery from short-term, transient ischemia. J. Cereb. Blood Flow Metab. 12:759–772.
Dux, E., Mies, G., Hossmann, K. A., and Siklos, L. 1987. Calcium in the mitochondria following brief ischemia of gerbil brain. Neurosci. Lett. 78:295–300.
Zaidan, E. and Sims, N. R. 1994. The calcium content of mitochondria from brain subregions following short-term forebrain ischemia and recirculation in the rat. J. Neurochem. 63:1812–1819.
Sims, N. R. and Pulsinelli, W. A. 1987. Altered mitochondrial respiration in selectively vulnerable brain subregions following transient forebrain ischemia in the rat. J. Neurochem. 49:1367–1374.
Fujimura, M., Morita-Fujimura, Y., Murakami, K., Kawase, M., and Chan, P. H. 1998. Cytosolic redistribution of cytochrome c after transient focal cerebral ischemia in rats. J. Cereb. Blood Flow Metab. 18:1239–1247.
Perez-Pinzon, M. A., Xu, G. P., Born, J., Lorenzo, J., Busto, R., Rosenthal, M., and Sick, T. J. 1999. Cytochrome c is released from mitochondria into the cytosol after cerebral anoxia or ischemia. J. Cereb. Blood Flow Metab. 19:39–43.
Sugawara, T., Fujimura, M., Morita-Fujimura, Y., Kawase, M., and Chan, P. H. 1999. Mitochondrial release of cytochrome c corresponds to the selective vulnerability of hippocampal CA1 neurons in rats after transient global cerebral ischemia. J. Neurosci. 19:RC39.
Nakahara, I., Kikuchi, H., Taki, W., Nishi, S., Kito, M., Yonekawa, Y., Goto, Y., and Ogata, N. 1992. Changes in major phospholipids of mitochondria during postischemic reperfusion in rat brain. J. Neurosurg. 76:244–250.
Gilboe, D. D., Kintner, D., Fitzpatrick, J. H., Emoto, S. E., Esanu, A., Braquet, P. G., and Bazan, N. G. 1991. Recovery of postischemic brain metabolism and function following treatment with a free radical scavenger and platelet-activating factor antagonists. J. Neurochem. 56:311–319.
Wagner, K. R., Kleinholz, M., and Myers, R. E. 1990. Delayed decreases in specific brain mitochondrial electron transfer complex activities and cytochrome concentrations following anoxia/ischemia. J. Neurol. Sci. 100:142–151.
Schild, L., Huppelsberg, J., Kahlert, S., Keilhoff, G., and Reiser, G. 2003. Brain mitochondria are primed by moderate Ca2+ rise upon hypoxia/reoxygenation for functional breakdown and morphological desintegration. J. Biol. Chem. (2003).
Polster, B. M., Kinnally, K. W., and Fiskum, G. 2001. Bh3 death domain peptide induces cell type-selective mitochondrial outer membrane permeability. J. Biol. Chem. 276:37887–37894.
Smith, M. L., Auer, R. N., and Siesjo, B. K. 1984. The density and distribution of ischemic brain injury in the rat following 2–10 min of forebrain ischemia. Acta Neuropathol. (Berl.) 64:319–332.
Pulsinelli, W. A., Brierley, J. B., and Plum, F. 1982. Temporal profile of neuronal damage in a model of transient forebrain ischemia. Ann. Neurol. 11:491–498.
Ito, U., Spatz, M., Walker, J. T. Jr., and Klatzo, I. 1975. Experimental cerebral ischemia in mongolian gerbils: I. Light microscopic observations. Acta Neuropathol. (Berl.) 32:209–223.
Siesjo, B. K., Katsura, K., and Kristian, T. 1996. Acidosis-related damage. Adv. Neurol. 71:209–233.
Garcia, J. H., Cox, J. V., and Hudgins, W. R. 1971. Ultrastructure of the microvasculature in experimental cerebral infarction. Acta Neuropathol. (Berl.) 18:273–285.
Garcia, J. H., Kalimo, H., Kamijyo, Y., and Trump, B. F. 1977. Cellular events during partial cerebral ischemia: I. Electron microscopy of feline cerebral cortex after middle-cerebral-artery occlusion. Virchows Arch. B Cell. Pathol. 25:191–206.
Lukaszevicz, A. C., Sampaio, N., Guegan, C., Benchoua, A., Couriaud, C., Chevalier, E., Sola, B., Lacombe, P., and Onteniete, B. 2002. High sensitivity of protoplasmic cortical astroglia to focal ischemia. J. Cereb. Blood Flow Metab. 22:289–298.
Xu, L., Sapolsky, R. M., and Giffard, R. G. 2001. Differential sensitivity of murine astrocytes and neurons from different brain regions to injury. Exp. Neurol. 169:416–424.
Pantoni, L., Garcia, J. H., and Gutierrez, J. A. 1996. Cerebral white matter is highly vulnerable to ischemia. Stroke 27:1641–1646.
Clark, J. B. and Nicklas, W. J. 1970. The metabolism of rat brain mitochondria: Preparation and characterization. J. Biol. Chem. 245:4724–4731.
Lai, J. C. and Clark, J. B. 1976. Preparation and properties of mitochondria derived from synaptosomes. Biochem. J. 154:423–432.
Booth, R. F. and Clark, J. B. 1979. A method for the rapid separation of soluble and particulate components of rat brain synaptosomes. FEBS Lett. 107:387–392.
Leong, S. F., Lai, J. C., Lim, L., and Clark, J. B. 1984. The activities of some energy-metabolising enzymes in nonsynaptic (free) and synaptic mitochondria derived from selected brain regions. J. Neurochem. 42:1306–1312.
Davey, G. P., Canevari, L., and Clark, J. B. 1997. Threshold effects in synaptosomal and nonsynaptic mitochondria from hippocampal CA1 and paramedian neocortex brain regions. J. Neurochem. 69:2564–2570.
Reichert, S. A., Kim-Han, J. S., and Dugan, L. L. 2001. The mitochondrial permeability transition pore and nitric oxide synthase mediate early mitochondrial depolarization in astrocytes during oxygen-glucose deprivation. J. Neurosci. 21:6608–6616.
Zhao, G. and Flavin, M. P. 2000. Differential sensitivity of rat hippocampal and cortical astrocytes to oxygen-glucose deprivation injury. Neurosci. Lett. 285:177–180.
Almeida, A., Delgado-Esteban, M., Bolanos, J. P., and Medina, J. M. 2002. Oxygen and glucose deprivation induces mitochondrial dysfunction and oxidative stress in neurones but not in astrocytes in primary culture. J. Neurochem. 81:207–217.
Swanson, R. A., Farrell, K., and Stein, B. A. 1997. Astrocyte energetics, function, and death under conditions of incomplete ischemia: A mechanism of glial death in the penumbra. Glia 21:142–153.
Bondarenko, A. and Chesler, M. 2001. Rapid astrocyte death induced by transient hypoxia, acidosis, and extracellular ion shifts. Glia 34:134–142.
Papadopoulos, M. C., Koumenis, I. L., Dugan, L. L., and Giffard, R. G. 1997. Vulnerability to glucose deprivation injury correlates with glutathione levels in astrocytes. Brain Res. 748:151–156.
Robb, S. J. and Connor, J. R. 1998. An in vitro model for analysis of oxidative death in primary mouse astrocytes. Brain Res. 788:125–132.
Chen, D., Lan, J., Pei, W., and Chen, J. 2000. Detection of DNA base-excision repair activity for oxidative lesions in adult rat brain mitochondria. J. Neurosci. Res. 61:225–236.
Castilho, R. F., Hansson, O., Ward, M. W., Budd, S. L., and Nicholls, D. G. 1998. Mitochondrial control of acute glutamate excitotoxicity in cultured cerebellar granule cells. J. Neurosci. 18:10277–10286.
Ward, M. W., Rego, A. C., Frenguelli, B. G., and Nicholls, D. G. 2000. Mitochondrial membrane potential and glutamate excitotoxicity in cultured cerebellar granule cells. J. Neurosci. 20:7208–7219.
Rego, A. C., Ward, M. W., and Nicholls, D. G. 2001. Mitochondria control ampa/kainate receptor-induced cytoplasmic calcium deregulation in rat cerebellar granule cells. J. Neurosci. 21:1893–1901.
Bullock, R. and Fujisawa, H. 1992. The role of glutamate antagonists for the treatment of CNS injury. J. Neurotrauma 9(Suppl 2):S443–S462.
Rothstein, J. D., Dykes-Hoberg, M., Pardo, C. A., Bristol, L. A., Jin, L., Kuncl, R. W., Kanai, Y., Hediger, M. A., Wang, Y., Schielke, J. P., and Welty, D. F. 1996. Knockout of glutamate transporters reveals a major role for astroglial transport in excitotoxicity and clearance of glutamate. Neuron 16:675–686.
Anderson, C. M. and Swanson, R. A. 2000. Astrocyte glutamate transport: Review of properties, regulation, and physiological functions. Glia 32:1–14.
Miralles, V. J., Martinez-Lopez, I., Zaragoza, R., Borras, E., Garcia, C., Pallardo, F. V., and Vina, J. R. 2001. Na+ dependent glutamate transporters (EAAT1, EAAT2, and EAAT3) in primary astrocyte cultures: Effect of oxidative stress. Brain Res. 922:21–29.
Fukamachi, S., Furuta, A., Ikeda, T., Ikenoue, T., Kaneoka, T., Rothstein, J. D., and Iwaki, T. 2001. Altered expression of glutamate transporter subtypes in rat model of neonatal cerebral hypoxia-ischemia. Brain Res. Dev. Brain Res. 132:131–139.
Torp, R., Lekieffre, D., Levy, L. M., Haug, F. M., Danbolt, N. C., Meldrum, B. S., and Ottersen, O. P. 1995. Reduced postischemic expression of a glial glutamate transporter, GLT1, in the rat hippocampus. Exp. Brain Res. 103:51–58.
Rao, V. L. R., Rao, A. M., Dogan, A., Bowen, K. K., Hatcher, J., Rothstein, J. D., and Dempsey, R. J. 2000. Glial glutamate transporter GLT-1 down-regulation precedes delayed neuronal death in gerbil hippocampus following transient global cerebral ischemia. Neurochem. Int. 36:531–537.
Martin, L. J., Brambrink, A. M., Lehmann, C., Portera-Cailliau, C., Koehler, R., Rothstein, J., and Traystman, R. J. 1997. Hypoxia-ischemia causes abnormalities in glutamate transporters and death of astroglia and neurons in newborn striatum. Ann. Neurol. 42:335–348.
Inage, Y. W., Itoh, M., Wada, K., and Takashima, S. 1998. Expression of two glutamate transporters, GLAST and EAAT4, in the human cerebellum: Their correlation in development and neonatal hypoxic-ischemic damage. J. Neuropathol. Exp. Neurol. 57:554–562.
Rao, V. L., Dogan, A., Todd, K. G., Bowen, K. K., Kim, B. T., Rothstein, J. D., and Dempsey, R. J. 2001. Antisense knockdown of the glial glutamate transporter GLT-1, but not the neuronal glutamate transporter EAAC1, exacerbates transient focal cerebral ischemia-induced neuronal damage in rat brain. J. Neurosci. 21:1876–1883.
Innocenti, B., Parpura, V., and Haydon, P. G. 2000. Imaging extracellular waves of glutamate during calcium signaling in cultured astrocytes. J. Neurosci. 20:1800–1808.
Pasti, L., Volterra, A., Pozzan, T., and Carmignoto, G. 1997. Intracellular calcium oscillations in astrocytes: A highly plastic, bidirectional form of communication between neurons and astrocytes in situ. J. Neurosci. 17:7817–7830.
Phillis, J. W. and O'Regan, M. H. 1996. Mechanisms of glutamate and aspartate release in the ischemic rat cerebral cortex. Brain Res. 730:150–164.
Seki, T. and Arai, Y. 1999. Different polysialic acid-neural cell adhesion molecule expression patterns in distinct types of mossy fiber boutons in the adult hippocampus. J. Comp. Neurol. 410:115–125.
Pasti, L., Zonta, M., Pozzan, T., Vicini, S., and Carmignoto, G. 2001. Cytosolic calcium oscillations in astrocytes may regulate exocytotic release of glutamate. J. Neurosci. 21:477–484.
Araque, A., Li, N., Doyle, R. T., and Haydon, P. G. 2000. SNARE protein-dependent glutamate release from astrocytes. J. Neurosci. 20:666–673.
Liu, S. Y. 1990. [Protective effects of vitamin E and selenium on myocardial mitochondria in rats: A study on the pathogenic factors and pathogenesis of Keshan disease], Chung. Hua. Yu. Fang. I. Hsueh. Tsa. Chih. 24:214–216.
McConkey, D. J., Nicotera, P., and Orrenius, S. 1994. Signalling and chromatin fragmentation in thymocyte apoptosis. Immunol. Rev. 142:343–363.
Anderson, M. F. and Sims, N. R. 2002. The effects of focal ischemia and reperfusion on the glutathione content of mitochondria from rat brain subregions. J. Neurochem. 81:541–549.
Dringen, R., Gutterer, J. M., and Hirrlinger, J. 2000. Glutathione metabolism in brain metabolic interaction between astrocytes and neurons in the defense against reactive oxygen species. Eur. J. Biochem. 267:4912–4916.
Bona, E., Hagberg, H., Loberg, E. M., Bagenholm, R., and Thoresen, M. 1998. Protective effects of moderate hypothermia after neonatal hypoxia-ischemia: Short-and long-term outcome. Pediatr. Res. 43:738–745.
Chen, Y., Vartiainen, N. E., Ying, W., Chan, P. H., Koistinaho, J., and Swanson, R. A. 2001. Astrocytes protect neurons from nitric oxide toxicity by a glutathione-dependent mechanism. J. Neurochem. 77:1601–1610.
Dringen, R., Gebhardt, R., and Hamprecht, B. 1993. Glycogen in astrocytes: Possible function as lactate supply for neighboring cells. Brain Res. 623:208–214.
Niitsu, Y., Hori, O., Yamaguchi, A., Bando, Y., Ozawa, K., Tamatani, M., Ogawa, S., and Tohyama, M. 1999. Exposure of cultured primary rat astrocytes to hypoxia results in intracellular glucose depletion and induction of glycolytic enzymes. Brain Res. Mol. Brain Res. 74:26–34.
Liu, Y., Rosenthal, R. E., Starke-Reed, P., and Fiskum, G. 1993. Inhibition of postcardiac arrest brain protein oxidation by acetyl-L-carnitine. Free Radic. Biol. Med. 15:667–670.
Rosenthal, R. E., Williams, R., Bogaert, Y. E., Getson, P. R., and Fiskum, G. 1992. Prevention of postischemic canine neurological injury through potentiation of brain energy metabolism by acetyl-L-carnitine. Stroke 23:1312–1317.
Lolic, M. M., Fiskum, G., and Rosenthal, R. E. 1997. Neuroprotective effects of acetyl-L-carnitine after stroke in rats. Ann. Emerg. Med. 29:758–765.
Bogaert, Y. E., Rosenthal, R. E., and Fiskum, G. 1994. Postischemic inhibition of cerebral cortex pyruvate dehydrogenase. Free Rad. Biol. Med. 16:811–820.
Calvani, M. and Arrigoni-Martelli, E. 1999. Attenuation by acetyl-L-carnitine of neurological damage and biochemical derangement following brain ischemia and reperfusion. Int. J. Tissue React. 21:1–6.
Bouzier, A. K., Thiaudiere, E., Biran, M., Rouland, R., Canioni, P., and Merle, M. 2000. The metabolism of [3-(13)C]lactate in the rat brain is specific of a pyruvate carboxylase-deprived compartment. J. Neurochem. 75:480–486.
Bernardi, P., Broekemeier, K. M., and Pfeiffer, D. R. 1994. Recent progress on regulation of the mitochondrial permeability transition pore: A cyclosporin-sensitive pore in the inner mitochondrial membrane. J. Bioenerg. Biomembr. 26:509–517.
Halestrap, A. P., Connern, C. P., Griffiths, E. J., and Kerr, P. M. 1997. Cyclosporin A binding to mitochondrial cyclophilin inhibits the permeability transition pore and protects hearts from ischaemia/reperfusion injury. Mol. Cell Biochem. 174:167–172.
Zoratti, M. and Szabo, I. 1995. The mitochondrial permeability transition. Biochim. Biophys. Acta 1241:139–176.
Gunter, T. E. and Pfeiffer, D. R. 1990. Mechanisms by which mitochondria transport calcium. Am. J. Physiol. 258:C755–C786.
Bernardi, P. and Petronilli, V. 1996. The permeability transition pore as a mitochondrial calcium release channel: A critical appraisal. J. Bioenerg. Biomembr. 28:131–138.
Bernardi, P. 1999. Mitochondrial transport of cations: Channels, exchangers, and permeability transition. Physiol. Rev. 79:127–1155.
Kristal, B. S. and Dubinsky, J. M. 1997. Mitochondrial permeability transition in the central nervous system: Induction by calcium cycling-dependent and-independent pathways. J. Neurochem. 69:524–538.
Andreyev, A., Fahy, B., and Fiskum, G. 1998. Cytochrome c release from brain mitochondria is independent of the mitochondrial permeability transition. FEBS Lett. 439:373–376.
Kristian, T., Gertsch, J., Bates, T. E., and Siesjo, B. K. 2000. Characteristics of the calcium-triggered mitochondrial permeability transition in nonsynaptic brain mitochondria: Effect of cyclosporin A and ubiquinone O. J. Neurochem. 74:1999–2009.
Fiskum, G., Bambrick, L., Kristian, T., Chandrasekaran, K., and Chinopoulos, C. 2003. Calcium-induced damage to neuron, astrocyte, and brain mitochondria [Abstract]. J. Neurochem. 85(Suppl. 1):56.
Bai, G., Rama Rao, K. V., Murthy, C. R., Panickar, K. S., Jayakumar, A. R., and Norenberg, M. D. 2001. Ammonia induces the mitochondrial permeability transition in primary cultures of rat astrocytes. J. Neurosci. Res. 66:981–991.
Uchino, H., Elmer, E., Uchino, K., Lindvall, O., and Siesjo, B. K. 1995. Cyclosporin A dramatically ameliorates CA1 hippocampal damage following transient forebrain ischaemia in the rat. Acta Physiol. Scand. 155:469–471.
Uchino, H., Elmer, E., Uchino, K., Li, P. A., He, Q. P., Smith, M. L., and Siesjo, B. K. 1998. Amelioration by cyclosporin A of brain damage in transient forebrain ischemia in the rat. Brain Res. 812:216–226.
Friberg, H., Ferrand-Drake, M., Bengtsson, F., Halestrap, A. P., and Wieloch, T. 1998. Cyclosporin A, but not FK 506, protects mitochondria and neurons against hypoglycemic damage and implicates the mitochondrial permeability transition in cell death. J. Neurosci. 18:5151–5159.
Yoshimoto, T. and Siesjo, B. K. 1998. Posttreatment with the immunosuppressant cyclosporin A in transient focal ischemia. Brain Res. 839:283–291.
Schurr, A. 2002. Lactate, glucose and energy metabolism in the ischemic brain [Review]. Int. J. Mol. Med. 10:131–136.
Starkov, A. A., Polster, B. M., and Fiskum, G. 2002. Regulation of hydrogen peroxide production by brain mitochondria by calcium and Bax. J. Neurochem. 83:220–228.
Kroemer, G. and Reed, J. C. 2000. Mitochondrial control of cell death. Nat. Med. 6:513–519.
Naderi, J., Hung, M., and Pandey, S. 2003. Oxidative stress-induced apoptosis in dividing fibroblasts involves activation of p38 MAP kinase and over-expression of Bax: Resistance of quiescent cells to oxidative stress. Apoptosis 8:91–100.
Cao, G., Minami, M., Pei, W., Yan, C., Chen, D., O'Horo, C., Graham, S. H., and Chen, J. 2001. Intracellular Bax translocation after transient cerebral ischemia: Implications for a role of the mitochondrial apoptotic signaling pathway in ischemic neuronal death. J. Cereb. Blood Flow Metab. 21:321–333.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Bambrick, L., Kristian, T. & Fiskum, G. Astrocyte Mitochondrial Mechanisms of Ischemic Brain Injury and Neuroprotection. Neurochem Res 29, 601–608 (2004). https://doi.org/10.1023/B:NERE.0000014830.06376.e6
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1023/B:NERE.0000014830.06376.e6