Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Subterranean termites in the urban landscape: Understanding their social structure is the key to successfully implementing population management using bait technology

  • Published:
Urban Ecosystems Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Subterranean termites will likely continue to be major economic insect pests in the urban environment. Public concerns about pesticide use will not abate but continue to drive development and implementation of environmentally more acceptable control strategies for subterranean termites. Termite baits are a promising alternative to soil termiticide treatments for protection of structures, but the correlation between killing termites in the landscape and protecting structures is tenuous given our current understanding of termite biology. We discuss the problems associated with defining the efficacy of termite bait products in regard to determining termite population parameters in the field. This discussion is in the form of six case histories involving measures of termite activity and relatedness taken over a three-year period. Our findings highlight the need to include control populations in studies of termite bait efficacy, the mobility of termite populations over time, the importance of defining the techniques used to describe termite colony associations, and the need to use a multidisciplinary research approach in addressing the question of termite social structure.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Beal, R.H. and Esenther, G.R. (1980) A new approach to subterranean termite control—the bait block method. Sociobiology 5, 171–174.

    Google Scholar 

  • Beal, R.H., Mauldin, J.K. and Jones, S.C. (1989) Subterranean termites—their prevention and control in buildings. Home and Garden Bulletin 64. USDA, Forest Service, Washington, DC.

    Google Scholar 

  • Beard, R.L. (1974) Termite biology and bait block method of control. Connecticut Agri. Exper. Stat. Bull. 784.

  • Birkey, C.W., Maruyama, T. and Fuerst, P. (1983) An approach to population and evolutionary genetic theory for genes in mitochondria and chloroplasts and some results. Genetics 103, 513–527.

    Google Scholar 

  • Brown, A.A., Herms, W.B., Homer, A.C., Kelly, J.W., Kofoid, C.A., Light, S.F. and Randall, M. (1934) General recommendations for the control of termite damage. In Termites and Termite Control (C.A. Kofoid, ed.), pp. 579–591. University of California Press, Berkeley, CA.

    Google Scholar 

  • Brown, W.V., Watson, J.A.L. and Lacey, M.J. (1996) A chemotaxonomic survey using cuticular hydrocarbons of some species of the Australian harvester termite genus Drepanotermes (Isoptera: Termitidae). Sociobiology 27, 199–221.

    Google Scholar 

  • Clement, J.-L. (1986) Open and closed societies in Reticulitermes termites (Isoptera: Rhinotermitidae): geographic and seasonal variations. Sociobiology 11, 311–323.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cole, L.M., Nicholson, R.A. and Casida, J.E. (1993) Action of phenyl pyrazole insecticides at the GABA-gated chloride channel. Pestic. Biochem. Physiol. 46, 47–54.

    Google Scholar 

  • Edwards, R. and Mill, A.E. (1986) Termites in Buildings: Their Biology and Control. The Rentokil Library, London, UK.

    Google Scholar 

  • Evans, T.A., Lenz, M. and Gleeson, P.V. (1998) Testing assumptions of mark–recapture protocols for estimating population size using Australian mound-building, subterranean termites. Ecol. Entomol. 23, 139–159.

    Google Scholar 

  • Forschler, B.T. (1994) Fluorescent spray paint as a topical marker on subterranean termites (Isoptera: Rhinotermitidae). Sociobiology 24, 27–38.

    Google Scholar 

  • Forschler, B.T. (1996) Baiting Reticulitermes (Isoptera: Rhinotermitidae) field colonies with abamectin and zinc borate-treated cellulose in Georgia. Sociobiology 28, 459–485.

    Google Scholar 

  • Forschler, B.T. (1998a) Subterranean termite biology in relation to prevention and removal of structural infestation. In NPCA Research Report on Subterranean Termites, pp. 31–51. NPCA, Dunn Loring, VA.

    Google Scholar 

  • Forschler, B.T. (1998b) Termite baiting: a research perspective. Pest Control Technology 26(6), 90, 92, 94, 96, 98, 99.

    Google Scholar 

  • Forschler, B.T. (2000) Baits and termite baiting technology: theory and practice. In Proceedings of the Conference on Residential Construction Materials and Practices to Protect Homes from Formosan Subterranean Termites (R. Smith, ed.). Louisiana Forest Products Laboratory Publications, Baton Rouge, LA, in press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Forschler, B.T. and Jenkins, T.M. (1999) Evaluation of subterranean termite biology using genetic, chemotaxonomic, and morphometric markers and ecological data: a testimonial for multidisciplinary efforts. Trends in Entomology 2, 72–80.

    Google Scholar 

  • Forschler, B.T. and Lewis, V.R. (1997) Why termites can dodge your treatment. Pest Control 65(2), 42–46, 53.

    Google Scholar 

  • Forschler, B.T. and Robinson, W.H. (1999) Ants and subterranean termites in the urban environment: the terminology of population management control tactics. Proc. 3rd International Conf. on Urban Pests (W.H. Robinson, F. Rettich and G.W. Rambo, eds.), pp. 589–595. Executive Committee of the International Conference on Urban Pests. Graficke zavocy Hronov, Prague, Czech Republic.

  • Forschler, B.T. and Ryder, J.C., Jr. (1996) Subterranean termite, Reticulitermes spp. (Isoptera: Rhinotermitidae) colony response to baiting with hexaflumuron using a prototype commercial termite baiting system. J. Entomol. Sci. 31, 143–151.

    Google Scholar 

  • Forschler, B.T. and Townsend, M.L. (1996) Mark-release-recapture estimates of Reticulitermes spp. (Isoptera: Rhinotermitidae) colony foraging populations from Georgia, U.S.A. Environ. Entomol. 25, 952–962.

    Google Scholar 

  • Forschler, B.T., Harron, J. and Jenkins, T.M. (2000) Case histories involving the Formosan subterranean termite in Atlanta, Georgia, USA. Sociobiology 37, 311–322.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gay, F.J. (1969) Species introduced by man. In Biology of Termites. Vol. I (K. Krishna and F.M. Weesner, eds.), pp. 459–494. Academic Press, New York, NY.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gold, R.E., Collins, A.A., Pawson, B.M. and Howell, H.N., Jr. (1994) Termiticide technology—the isofenphos dilemma. Technology: J. Franklin Institute 331, 189–198.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gold, R.E., Howell, H.N., Jr., Pawson, B.M., Wright M.S. and Lutz, J.C. (1996) Persistence and bioavailability of termiticides to subterranean termites (Isoptera: Rhinotermitidae) from five soil types and locations in Texas. Sociobiology 28, 337–364.

    Google Scholar 

  • Grace, J.K., Abdallay, A. and Farr, K.R. (1989) Eastern subterranean termite (Isoptera: Rhinotermitidae) foraging territories and populations in Toronto. Can. Entomol. 121, 551–556.

    Google Scholar 

  • Grace, J.K., Tome, C.H.M., Shelton, T.G., Oshiro, R.J. and Yates, J.R., Jr. (1996) Baiting studies and considerations with Coptotermes formosanus (Isoptera: Rhinotermitidae) in Hawaii. Sociobiology 28, 511–520.

    Google Scholar 

  • Haagsma, K.A. and Rust, M.K. (1995) Colony size estimates, foraging trends, and physiological characteristics of the western subterranean termite (Isoptera: Rhinotermitidae). Environ. Entomol. 24, 1520–1528.

    Google Scholar 

  • Haverty, M.I., Nutting, W.L. and La Fage, J.P. (1975) Density of colonies and spatial distribution of foraging territories of the desert subterranean termite Heterotermes aureus (Snyder). Environ. Entomol. 4, 105–109.

    Google Scholar 

  • Haverty, M.I., Forschler, B.T. and Nelson, L.J. (1996) An assessment of the taxonomy of Reticulitermes (Isoptera: Rhinotermitidae) from the southeastern United States based on cuticular hydrocarbons. Sociobiology 28, 287–318.

    Google Scholar 

  • Haverty, M.I., Getty, G.M., Copren, K.A. and Lewis, V.R. (1999) Seasonal foraging and feeding behavior of Reticulitermes spp. (Isoptera: Rhinotermitidae) in a wildland and a residential location in northern California. Environ. Entomol. 28, 1077–1084.

    Google Scholar 

  • Howard, R.W., Jones, S.C., Mauldin, J.K. and Beal, R. (1982) Abundance, distribution, and colony size estimates of Reticulitermes spp. (Isoptera: Rhinotermitidae) in southern Mississippi. Environ. Entomol. 11, 1290–1293.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jenkins, T.M., Basten, C.J., Dean, R., Mitchell, S.E., Krescovich, S. and Forschler, B.T. (1998) Matriarchal genetic structure of Reticulitermes (Isoptera: Rhinotermitidae) populations. Sociobiology 33, 239–263.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jenkins, T.M., Basten, C.J., Krescovich, S. and Forschler, B.T. (1999) Mitochondrial gene sequence questions Reticulitermes sp. social structure (Isoptera: Rhinotermitidae). Sociobiology 34, 161–172.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jenkins, T.M., Verkerk, R., Dean, R. and Forschler, B.T. (2001) Phylogenetic analyses of two mitochondrial and one nuclear intron region illuminate European subterranean termite (Isoptera: Rhinotermitidae) taxonomy and gene flow. Mol. Phylgenet. Evol. 20, 286–293.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jones, S.C. (1990) Delineation of Heterotermes aureus (Isoptera: Rhinotermitidae) foraging territories in a Sonoran desert grassland. Environ. Entomol. 19, 1047–1054.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kaib, M., Husseneder, C., Epplen, C., Epplen, J.T. and Brandl, R. (1996) Kin-biased foraging in a termite. Proc. R. Soc. Lond. 263, 1527–1532.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kofoid, C.A. (1934) Biological backgrounds of the termite problem. In Termites and Termite Control (C.A. Kofoid, ed.), pp. 1–13. University of California Press, Berkeley, CA.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lee, K.E. and Wood, T.G. (1971) Termites and Soils. Academic Press, New York.

    Google Scholar 

  • Liu, H. and Beckenbach, A.T. (1992) Evolution of the mitochondrial cytochrome oxidase II gene among 10 orders of insects. Mol. Phylgenet. Evol. 41, 41–52.

    Google Scholar 

  • Moore, H.B. (1990) Termites: their prevention and control. In Wood Destroying Insects, pp. 34–71. Pest Control Magazine. Cleveland, OH.

    Google Scholar 

  • Polizzi, J.M. and Forschler, B.T. (1998) Intra-and interspecific agonism in Reticulitermes falvipes (Kollar) and R. virginicus (Banks) and effects of arena and group size in laboratory bioassay. Insectes Soc. 45, 43–49.

    Google Scholar 

  • Polizzi, J.M. and Forschler, B.T. (1999) Factors that affect aggression among the worker caste of Reticulitermes spp. subterranean termites. (Isoptera: Rhinotermitidae). Journal of Insect Behavior 12, 133–146.

    Google Scholar 

  • Potter, M.F. (1997) Termites. In Mallis Handbook of Pest Control. 8th ed., pp. 233–333. Mallis Handbook & Technical Training Co., Cleveland, OH.

    Google Scholar 

  • Reilly, L.M. (1987) Measurements of inbreeding and average relatedness in a termite population. Am. Nat. 130, 339–349.

    Google Scholar 

  • Scheffrahn, R.H. and Su, N.-Y. (1994) Keys to soldier and winged adult termites (Isoptera) of Florida. Florida Entomologist 77, 460–474.

    Google Scholar 

  • Simon, C., Frati, F., Beckenbach, A., Crespi, B., Liu, H. and Flook, P. (1994) Evolution, weighting, and phylogenetic utility of mitochondrial gene sequences and a compilation of conserved polymerase chain reaction primers. Annals Entomol. Soc. Am. 87, 651–701.

    Google Scholar 

  • Su, N.-Y. (1994) Field evaluation of a hexaflumuron bait for population suppression of subterranean termites (Isoptera: Rhinotermitidae). J. Econ. Entomol. 87, 389–397.

    Google Scholar 

  • Su, N.-Y. and Scheffrahn, R.H. (1988) Intra-and interspecific competition of the Formosan and eastern subterranean termites: evidence from field observations (Isoptera: Rhinotermitidae). Sociobiology 14, 157–164.

    Google Scholar 

  • Su, N.-Y. and Scheffrahn, R.H. (1990) Economically important termites in the United States and their control. Sociobiology 17, 77–94.

    Google Scholar 

  • Su, N.-Y. and Scheffrahn, R.H. (1996) A review of the evaluation criteria for bait-toxicant efficacy against field colonies of subterranean termites (Isoptera). Sociobiology 28, 521–530.

    Google Scholar 

  • Su, N.-Y. and Tamashiro, M. (1987) An overview of the Formosan subterranean termite, Coptotermes formosanus (Isoptera: Rhinotermitidae) in the world. In Proceedings of the International Symposium on the Formosan Subterranean Termite (M. Tamashiro and N.-Y. Su, eds.), pp. 3–15. College of Tropical Agriculture and Human Resources, University of Hawaii, Research Extension Series 083, Honolulu, Hawaii.

  • Su, N.-Y., Ban, P.M. and Scheffrahn, R.H. (1993) Foraging populations and territories of the eastern subterranean termite (Isoptera: Rhinotermitidae) in southeastern Florida. Environ. Entomol. 22, 1113–1117.

    Google Scholar 

  • Su, N.-Y., Thoms, E.M., Ban, P.M. and Scheffrahn, R.H. (1995) Monitoring/baiting stations to detect and eliminate foraging populations of subterranean termites (Isoptera: Rhinotermitidae) near structures. J. Econ. Entomol. 88, 932–936.

    Google Scholar 

  • Thorne, B.L. (1998) Biology of subterranean termites of the genus Reticulitermes. In NPCA Research Report on Subterranean Termites, pp. 1–30. NPCA, Dunn Loring, VA.

    Google Scholar 

  • Thorne, B.L. and Forschler, B.T. (2000) Criteria for measuring the efficacy of stand alone termite baits. Sociobiology 36, 245–255.

    Google Scholar 

  • Thorne, B.L., Russek-Cohen, E., Forschler, B.T., Breisch, N.L. and Traniello, J.F.A. (1996) Evaluation of markrelease-recapture methods for estimating forager population size of subterranean termite (Isoptera: Rhinotermitidae) colonies. Environ. Entomol. 25, 938–951.

    Google Scholar 

  • Waller, D.A. and La Fage, J.P. (1987) Nutritional ecology of termites. In Nutritional Ecology of Insects, Mites and Spiders (F. Slansky and J.G. Rodriguez, eds.), pp. 487–532. John Wiley, New York, NY.

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Entomology, University of Georgia, Athens, GA, 30602

    Brian T. Forschler

  2. Department of Entomology, University of Georgia, Georgia Experiment Station, Griffin, GA, 30223

    Tracie M. Jenkins

Authors
  1. Brian T. Forschler
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Tracie M. Jenkins
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Forschler, B.T., Jenkins, T.M. Subterranean termites in the urban landscape: Understanding their social structure is the key to successfully implementing population management using bait technology. Urban Ecosystems 4, 231–251 (2000). https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1012262727738

Download citation

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1012262727738

Search

Navigation