Skip to main content
Log in

Student Perceptions of Earnings Management: The Effects of National Origin and Gender

  • Published:
Teaching Business Ethics

Abstract

Earnings management is the practice of makingdiscretionary accounting choices or timingoperating decisions to move reported earningstoward a desired goal. Prior research revealswide disagreement among both students andbusiness executives regarding the ethicalacceptability of earnings management. Thisstudy investigates whether gender and nationalorigin influence accounting students'perceptions of earnings management. Male andfemale accounting students from the U.S. andfive Asian countries evaluated thirteenvignettes describing earnings managementpractices. Very few differences were detectedbetween the responses of the male and femalestudents or between the students from the U.S.and the Asian countries, indicating that thepractice of earnings management was perceivedsimilarly across all the groups of studentsstudied.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Similar content being viewed by others

REFERENCES

  • Akaah, I.P.: 1988, 'Differences in Research Ethics Judgements Between Male and Female Marketing Professionals', Journal of Business Ethics 8, 375-381.

    Google Scholar 

  • Abelson, R.: 1999, 'Settling for Prevention', The New York Times (July 11), 6.

  • Allmon, D. E. H., C. K. Chen, T. K. Pritchett and P. Forrest: 1997, 'A Multicultural Examination of Business Ethics Perceptions', Journal of Business Ethics 16, 183-188.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ameen, E. C., D. M. Guffey and J. J. McMillan: 1996, 'Gender Differences in Determining the Ethical Sensitivity of Future Accounting Professionals', Journal of Business Ethics 15, 591-597.

    Google Scholar 

  • Arlow, P. and T. A. Ulrich: 1980, 'Business Ethics, Social Responsibility and Business Students: An Empirical Comparison of Clark's Study', Akron Business and Economic Review 11, 17-23.

    Google Scholar 

  • Becker, H. and D. J. Fritsche: 1987, 'A Comparison of the Ethical Behavior of American, French, and German Managers', Columbia Journal of World Business 22, 87-95.

    Google Scholar 

  • Betz, J., L. O'Connell and J. M. Shepard: 1989, 'Gender Differences in Proclivity for Unethical Behavior', Journal of Business Ethics 8, 321-324.

    Google Scholar 

  • Beltramini, R., R. Peterson and G. Kozmetsky: 1984, 'Concerns of College Students Regarding Business Ethics', Journal of Business Ethics 3, 195-200.

    Google Scholar 

  • Borkowski, S. C. and Y. J. Ugras: 1992, 'The Ethical Attitudes of Students as a Function of Age, Sex, and Experience', Journal of Business Ethics 11, 961-979.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bommer, M., C. Gratto, J. Gravander and M. Tuttle: 1987, 'A Behavioral Model of Ethical and Unethical Decision Marking', Journal of Business Ethics 6, 265-280.

    Google Scholar 

  • Brody, R., J. Coulter and S. Lin: 1999, 'The Effect of National Culture onWhisle-Blowing Perceptions', Teaching Business Ethics 3, 385-400.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bruns Jr., W. J. and K. A. Merchant: 1990, 'The Dangerous Morality of Managing Earnings', Management Accounting (August), 22-25.

  • Bussey, K. and B. Maughan: 1982, 'Gender Differences in Moral Reasoning', Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 42, 701-706.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cahan, S. F.: 1992, 'The Effect of Antitrust Investigations on Discretionary Accruals: A Refined Test of the Political-Cost Hypothesis', The Accounting Review 67, 77-95.

    Google Scholar 

  • Callahan, S: 1990, 'Is Gender Germane?', Health Progress, 21-24.

  • Callan, V. J.: 1992, 'Predicting Ethical Values and Training Needs in Ethics', Journal of Business Ethics 11, 761-769.

    Google Scholar 

  • Choi, F. D. and V. B. Bavishi: 1983, 'International Accounting Standards: Issues Needing Attention', Journal of Accountancy 155(3), 62-68.

    Google Scholar 

  • Choi, F. D., C. A. Frost and G. K. Meek: 1999, International Accounting, 3rd Edition, Prentice-Hall, Upper Saddle River, NJ.

    Google Scholar 

  • Chonka, L. B. and S. D. Hunt: 1985, 'Ethics and Marketing Management: An Empirical Examination', Journal of Business Research 13, 339-359.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cohen, J. R., L. W. Pant and D. J. Sharp: 1996, 'A Methodological Note on Cross Cultural Accounting Ethics Research', The International Journal of Accounting 31, 55-66.

    Google Scholar 

  • Davis, J. F. and R. Welton: 1991, 'Professional Ethics: Business Students' Perception', Journal of Business Ethics 10, 451-463.

    Google Scholar 

  • Deshpande, S. P.: 1997, 'Managers' Perception of Proper Ethical Conduct: The Effect of Sex, Age, and Level of Education', Journal of Business Ethics 16, 79-85.

    Google Scholar 

  • DeFond, M. L. and J. Jiambalvo: 1994, 'Debt Covenant Violation and Manipulation of Accruals', Journal of Accounting and Economics 17, 145-176.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dubrinsky, A. J. and M. Levy: 1985, 'Ethics in Retailing Perceptions of Retail Salespeople', Journal of Academy of Marketing Science 13, 1-16.

    Google Scholar 

  • Erickson, M. and S. Wang: 1999. 'Earnings Management by Acquiring Firms in Stock for Stock Mergers', Journal of Accounting and Economics 27, 149-176.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ferrell, O. C. and S. J. Skinner: 1988, 'Ethical Behavior and Bureaucratic Structure in Marketing Research Organizations', Journal of Marketing Research 25, 103-109.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fischer M. and K. Rosenzweig: 1995, 'Attitudes of Students and Accounting Practitioners Concerning the Ethical Acceptability of Earnings Management', Journal of Business Ethics 14, 433-444.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ford, R. C. and W. D. Richardson: 1994, 'Ethical Decision Making: A Review of the Empirical Literature', Journal of Business Ethics 13, 205-221.

    Google Scholar 

  • French, J. R. P., J. Israel and D. As: 1960, 'An Experiment on Participation in a Norwegian Factory Interpersonal Dimensions or Decision-Making', Human Relations (February), 3-19.

  • Fritzsche, D. J.: 1988, 'An Examination of Marketing Ethics: Role of the Decision Maker, Consequences of the Decision, Management Position, and Sex of the Respondent', Journal of Macromarketing 8, 29-39.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fulmer, W. E. and B. R. Cargile: 1987, 'Ethical Perceptions of Accounting Students: Does Exposure to a Code of Professional Ethics Help?', Issues in Accounting Education 2, 207-219.

    Google Scholar 

  • Galbraith, S and H. B. Stephenson: 1993, 'Decision Rules Used by Male and Female Business Students in Making Ethical Value Judgments: Another Look', Journal of Business Ethics 12, 227-233.

    Google Scholar 

  • Geiger, M. A. and B. T. O'Connell: 1999, 'Accounting Student Ethical Perceptions: An Analysis of Training and Gender', Teaching Business Ethics 2, 371-388.

    Google Scholar 

  • Geiger, M. A., E. A. Cooper, I. Hussain, B. T. O'Connell, J. Power, K. Raghunandan, D. V. Rama and G. Sanchez: 1998, 'Using Expectancy Theory to Assess Student Motivation: An International Replication', Issues in Accounting Education 13, 139-156.

    Google Scholar 

  • Giacomino, D. E.: 1992, 'Ethical Perceptions of Accounting Majors and Other Business Majors: An Empirical Study', Accounting Educators' Journal 5, 1-26.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gilligan, C.: 1977, 'In a Different Voice: Women's Conception of the Self and Morality', Harvard Educational Review 49, 431-446.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gilligan, C.: 1982. In a Different Voice. Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA.

    Google Scholar 

  • Haan, N., J. Langer and L. Kolberg: 1976, 'Family Patterns of Moral Reasoning', Child Development 47, 1204-1206.

    Google Scholar 

  • Harris, J. R.: 1990, 'Ethical Values of Individuals at Different Levels in the Organizational Hierarchy of a Single Firm', Journal of Business Ethics 9, 741-750.

    Google Scholar 

  • Haste, H. and J. Baddeley: 1991, 'Moral Theory and Culture: The Case of Gender', in W. M. Kurtines and J. L. Gewirtz (eds.), Handbook of Moral Behavior and Development (2), Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Hillsdale, IL.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hegarty, W. H. and H. P. Simms: 1978, 'Some Determinants of Unethical Decision Behavior: An Experiment', Journal of Applied Psychology 63, 451-457.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hegarty, W. H. and H. P. Simms: 1979, 'Organizational Philosophy, Policies and Objectives Related to Unethical Decision Behavior: A Laboratory Experiment', Journal of Applied Psychology 64, 331-338.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hofstede, G.: 1980, Culture's Consequences: International Differences in Work-related Values, Sage Publications, Beverly Hills, CA.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hofstede, G.: 1984, 'National Cultures Revisited', Asia and Pacific Journal of Management, 301-329.

  • Hofstede, G.: 1991, Cultures and Organizations: Software of the Mind,McGraw-Hill Book Company, London.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hofstede, G. and M. H. Bond: 1988, 'The Confusion Connection: From Cultural Roots to Economic Growth', Organization Dynamics (Spring), 5-21.

  • Hofstede, G. and M. H. Bond: 1995, 'Multilevel Research on Human Systems: Flowers, Bouquets and Gardens', Human Systems Management 14, 207-217.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hui, H. C. and H. C. Triandis: 1986, 'Individualism-Collectivism: A Study of Crosscultural Researchers', Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology 17, 225-248.

    Google Scholar 

  • Karnes, A., J. Sterner, R. Welker and F. Wu: 1989, 'A Bicultural Study of Independent Auditors' Perceptions of Unethical Business Practices', The International Journal of Accounting 24, 29-41.

    Google Scholar 

  • Keller, C.: 1988, From a Broken Web: Separation, Sexism and Self, Beacon Press, Boston, MA.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kidwell, J. M., R. E. Stevens and A. L. Bethke: 1987, 'Differences in Ethical Perceptions Between Male and Female Managers: Myth or Reality?', Journal of Business Ethics 6, 489-493.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kohlberg, L.: 1969, 'State and Sequence: The Cognitive-developmental Approach to Socialization', in D. A. Goslin (ed.), Handbook of Socialization Theory and Research, Rand McNally, Chicago, IL, pp. 347-480.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kohlberg, L.: 1984, Essays on Moral Development Volume Two: The Psychology of Moral Development, Harper and Row, San Francisco, CA.

    Google Scholar 

  • Levitt Jr., A.: 1998, 'The Numbers Game', The CPA Journal (December), 15-19.

  • Merchant K. A. and J. Rockness: 1994, 'The Ethics of Managing Earnings: An Empirical Investigation', Journal of Accounting and Public Policy 13, 79-94.

    Google Scholar 

  • McCuddy, J. K. and B. L. Peery: 1996, 'Selected Individual Differences and Collegians' Ethical Beliefs', Journal of Business Ethics 15, 261-272.

    Google Scholar 

  • McNichols, C. W. and T. W. Zimmerer: 1985, 'Situational Ethics: An Empirical Study of Differentiators of Student Attitudes', Journal of Business Ethics 4, 175-180.

    Google Scholar 

  • Okleshen, M. and R. Hoyt: 1996, 'A Cross Cultural Comparison of Ethical Perspectives and Decision Approaches of Business Students: United States of America versus New Zealand', Journal of Business Ethics 15, 537-549.

    Google Scholar 

  • Peterson, R. A., R. F. Beltramini and G. Kozmetsky: 1991, 'Concerns of College Students Regarding Business Ethics: A Replication,' Journal of Business Ethics 10, 733-738.

    Google Scholar 

  • Perry, S. E. and T. H. Williams: 1994, 'Earnings Management Preceding Management Buyout Offers', Journal of Accounting and Economics 18, 157-179.

    Google Scholar 

  • Perera, M. H. B. and M. R. Mathews: 1990, 'The Cultural Relativity of Accounting and International Patterns of Social Accounting', Advances in International Accounting 3, 215-251.

    Google Scholar 

  • Poortinga, Y. H.: 1989, 'Equivalence of Cross-cultural Data: An Overview of Basic Issues', International Journal of Psychology 24, 737-756.

    Google Scholar 

  • Poortinga, Y. H. and R. S. Malpass: 1986, 'Making Inferences From Cross-cultural Data', in W. J. Lonner and J. W. Berry (eds.), Field Methods in Cross-cultural Research, Sage Publications, Beverly Hills, CA, pp. 17-46.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rest, J.: 1986, Moral Development: Advances in Research and Theory, Praeger, NewYork, NY.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ruegger, D. and E.W. King: 1992, 'A Study of the Effect of Age and Gender upon Student Business Ethics', Journal of Business Ethics 11, 179-186.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schminke, M.: 1997, 'Gender Differences in Ethical Frameworks and Evaluation of Others' Choices and Ethical Dilemmas', Journal of Business Ethics 16, 55-65.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schwartz, S.: 1994, 'Cultural Dimensions of Values: Toward an Understanding of National Differences', in U. Kim, H. Triandis, C. Kagitubasi, S. Choi and G. Yoon (eds.), Individualism and Collectivism: Theory, Method, and Application, Sage Publications, Thousand Oaks, CA, pp. 85-119.

    Google Scholar 

  • Smith, P. L. and E. F. Oakley, III: 1997, 'Gender-related Differences in Ethical and Social Values of Business Students: Implications for Management', Journal of Business Ethics 16, 37-45.

    Google Scholar 

  • Stanga, K. G. and R. A. Turpen: 1991, 'Ethical Judgments on Selected Accounting Issues: An Empirical Study', Journal of Business Ethics 10, 739-747.

    Google Scholar 

  • Stevens, G. E.: 1984, 'Business Ethics and Social Responsibility: The Responses of Present and Future Managers', Akron Business and Economic Review 15, 6-11.

    Google Scholar 

  • Teoh, H., D. Serang and C. Lim: 1999, 'Individualism-Collectivism Cultural Differences Affecting Perceptions of Unethical Practices: Some Evidence from Australian and Indonesian Accounting Students', Teaching Business Ethics 3, 137-153.

    Google Scholar 

  • Triandis, H.: 1980, 'Reflections on Trends in Cross-cultural Psychology', Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology (March), 35-58.

  • Triandis, H.: 1985, 'Collectivism vs. Individualism: A Reconceptualization of a Basic Concept in Cross-cultural Psychology', in C. Bagley and G. K. Verma (eds.), Personality, Cognition and Values: Cross-cultural Perspectives of Childhood and Adolescence, McMillan Publishing Co., London, pp. 60-95.

    Google Scholar 

  • Triandis, H.: 1989, 'The Self and Social Behavior in Differing Cultural Contexts,' Psychological Review 96, 506-520.

    Google Scholar 

  • Triandis, H.: 1995, Individualism and Collectivism, Westview, Boulder, CO.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tsalikis, J. and M. Ortiz-Buonafina: 1990, 'Ethical Beliefs' Differences of Males and Females', Journal of Business Ethics 9, 509-517.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tsui, J. S. L.: 1996, 'Auditors' Ethical Reasoning: Some Audit Conflict and Cross Cultural Evidence', The International Journal of Accounting 1, 121-133.

    Google Scholar 

  • Walker, L. J.: 1984, 'Sex Differences in the Development of Moral Reasoning: A Critical Review', Child Development 55, 677-691.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wallace, R., S. Olusegun and H. Gernon: 1991, 'Frameworks for International Comparative Financial Accounting', Journal of Accounting Literature 10, 209-264.

    Google Scholar 

  • Whipple, T. and D. F. Swords: 1992, 'Business Ethics Judgments: A Cross Cultural Comparison', Journal of Business Ethics 11, 671-678.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wines, W. A. and N. K. Napier: 1992, 'Towards an Understanding of Cross-cultural Ethics: A tentative Model', Journal of Business Ethics, 831-841.

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

Authors

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Clikeman, P.M., Geiger, M.A. & O'Connell, B.T. Student Perceptions of Earnings Management: The Effects of National Origin and Gender. Teaching Business Ethics 5, 389–410 (2001). https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1012252922571

Download citation

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1012252922571

Keywords

Navigation