Abstract
Recently, many urban areas of the world have experienced rapid growth of population and industrial activity raising concerns of environmental deterioration. To meet challenges associated with such rapid urbanization, it has become necessary to implement wise strategies for environmental management and planning, addressing the exclusive demands of urban zones for maintaining environmental sustainability and functioning with minimum disruption. These strategies and related public policy must be based on state-of-the-science tools for environmental forecasting, in particular, on mathematical models that accurately incorporate physical, biological, chemical and geological processes at work on urban scales. Central to such models are the mechanics of environmental fluids (air and water) and their transport and transformation characteristics. Although much progress has been made on understanding environmental flow phenomena, a myriad of issues akin to urban flow, the transport phenomena, air and water quality and health issues (epidemiology) remain to be understood and quantified. We propose to initiate a new focus area – Urban Fluid Mechanics (UFM) – tailored to research on such issues. For optimal societal impact, UFM must delve into fundamental and applied fluid flow problems of immediate utility for the development of urban public policy and environmental regulations. Such efforts often entail the use of `whole' systems approach to environmental studies, requiring careful synthesis between crosscutting areas.
In this paper, a few topics in the realm of UFM are presented, the theme being the flow and air quality in urban areas. Topics such as the scales of flow, the atmospheric boundary layer, pollutants and their transport and modeling of flow and air quality are briefly reviewed, discussed and exemplified using case studies. Identification of important flow-related issues, rigorous multidisciplinary approaches to address them and articulation of results in the context of socio-political cause calebre will be the challenges faced by UFM.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
B. Ackerman, The airflow program in METROMEX. In: F.A. Huff (ed.), Summary Report, No. 74, Ill. State Water Survey (1973) pp. 113–124.
F.A. Albini, A phenomenological model for wind speed and shear stress profiles in vegetation cover layers, J. Appl. Meteorol. 20 (1981) 1325–1335.
K.J. Allwine, Atmospheric dispersion in mountain valleys and basins, PNL-7922, Pacific Northwest Laboratory Report 199 (1992).
J.S. Amthor, Scaling CO2-photosynthesis relationships from the leaf to the canopy, Photosynthesis Res. 39 (1994) 321–350.
J.S. Amthor,M.L. Goulden,J.W. Munger andS.C. Wofsy, Testing a mechanistic model of forestcanopy mass and energy exchange using eddy-correlation: carbon dioxide and ozone uptake by a mixed oak-maple stand, Aust. J. Plant Physiol. 21 (1994) 623–651.
J.R. Anderson,P.R. Buseck,T.L. Patterson andR. Arimoto, Characterization of the Bermuda tropospheric aerosol by combined individual-particle and bulk-aerosol analysis, Atmospheric. Environ. 30 (1996) 319–338.
J.K. Angell,W.H. Hoecker,C.R. Dickson andD.H. Pack, Urban influence on a strong daytime air flow as determined from tetroon flights, J. Appl. Meteorol. 12 (1973) 924–936.
S.P. Arya, Air Pollution Meteorology and Dispersion. Oxford University Press, Oxford (1999) 310 pp.
R. Avissar andM.M. Verstraete, The representation of continental surface processes in atmospheric models, Rev. Geophys. 28 (1990) 35–52.
J.J. Baik andH.Y. Chun, A dynamical model for urban heat island., Bound. Layer Meteorol. 83 (1997) 463–477.
J.J. Baik andJ.J. Kim, A numerical study of flow and pollutant dispersion characteristics in urban street canyons, J. Appl. Meteorol. 38 (1999) 1576–1589.
J.J. Baik,R.S. Park,H.Y. Chun andJ.J. Kim, A Laboratory model of urban street canyon flows, J. Appl. Meteorol. 39 (2000) 1592–1600.
S.E. Bauman,E.T. Williams,H.L. Finston,E.F. Ferrand andJ. Sontowski, Street level versus rooftop sampling: carbon monoxide and aerosol in New York City, Atmospheric. Environ. 16 (1982) 2489–2496.
P.E. Benson, CALINE4-A Dispersion Model for Predicting Air Pollutant Concentrations Near Roadways, FHWA/CA/TL-84/15 (1989).
S.E. Belcher andJ.C.R. Hunt, Turbulent flow over hills and waves, Ann. Rev. Fluid Mech. 30 (1998) 507–538.
S.E. Belcher,D.P. Xu andJ.C.R. Hunt, The response of a turbulent boundary layer to arbitrary distributed two-dimensional roughness changes, Q. J. Roy. Meteorol. Soc. 116 (1990) 611–635.
W.J. Beranek, General rules for the determination of wind environment. In: J.R. Pfafflin andE.N. Ziegler (eds.), Proc. Fifth Intern. Conv. on Wind Eng., July, Fort Collins, CO, Vol. 2,(.), Gordon and Breach Science Publishers, New York, NY (1979).
N.S. Berman,D.L. Boyer,A.J. Brazel,S.W. Brazel,R.A. Celada,R-R. Chen,H.J.S. Fernando,M.J. Fitch andH-W Wang, Synoptic Classification and the Design of Physical Model Experiments for Complex Terrain, J. Appl. Meteorol. 34 (1995) 719–730.
R. Bornstein, Mean diurnal circulation and thermodynamic evolution of urban boundary layer. In: Modeling the Urban Boundary Layer, Am. Meteorol. Soc. (1987) pp. 53–93.
R.D. Bornstein, Observations of the urban heat island effect in New York City, J. Appl. Meteorol. 7 (1968) 575–582.
R.D. Bornstein andD.S. Johnson, Urban-rural wind velocity differences, Atmospheric. Environ. 11 (1977) 597–604.
R.D. Bornstein andT.R. Oke, Influence of pollution on urban climatology, Adv. Environ. Sci. Engrg. 2 (1981) 171–202.
R.D. Bornstein,P. Thunis,P. Opossi andG. Schayes, Topographic, vorticity-mode, mesoscale b (TVM) model Part II: Evaluation, J. Appl. Meteorol. 35 (1996) 1824–1834.
E.F. Bradley, An experimental study of the profiles of wind speed, shearing stress and turbulence at crest of a large hill, Quart. J. Roy. Meteorol. Soc. 106 (1980) 101–123.
W.F. Bradley, A micrometeorological study of velocity profile and surface drag in the region modified by a change in surface roughness, Q. J. Roy. Meteorol. Soc. 94 (1968) 361–329.
J. Brechling andH. Ihlenfeld, The modeling of the atmospheric boundary layer in a wind tunnel with an open test section and its application for investigations of the flow around buildings. In: R.J. Perkins andS.E. Belcher (eds.) Flow and Dispersion Through Groups of Obstacles. Claredon Press, New York (1997) pp. 71–88.
G.A. Briggs, Diffusion modeling with convective scaling and effects of surface inhomogeneities. In: Modeling the Urban Boundary Layer, Am. Meteorol. Soc. (1987) pp. 297–333.
G.A. Briggs,R.S. Thompson andW.H. Snyder, Dense gas removal from a valley by cross winds, J. Haz. Mat. 24 (1990) 1–38.
P.W.M. Brighton, Strongly stratified flow past three-dimensional obstacles, Q. Jour. Roy. Meteorol. Soc. 104 (1978) 289–307.
R.E. Britter andJ.C.R. Hunt, Velocity measurements and order of magnitude estimates of the flow between two buildings in a simulated atmospheric boundary layer, J. Indust. Aerodynamics 4 (1979) 165–182.
M. Brown,M. Leach,J. Reisner,D. Stevens,S. Smith,S. Chin,S. Chan andB. Lee, Numerical modeling from mesoscale to urban scale to building scale, Proc. 3rd Symposium on the Urban Environment, 14–18 August, Davis, CA. (2000) pp. 64–65.
W. Brutsaert, Heat and mass transfer to and from surfaces with dense vegetation or similar permeable roughness, Boundary Layer Meteorol. 16 (1979) 365–388.
G. Bugliarello, Rethinking Today's Cities-Designing Tomorrows Urban Centers, Paper presented at the Technical Symposium on Earth Systems Engineering, National Academy of Engineering, Washington DC, October 24 (2000).
Bureau of Statistics, U.S. Department of Transportation, The National Transportation Statistics (1999).
D.W. Byun andJ.K.S. Ching, Science algorithms of the EPA models-3 Community Multiscale Air Quality (CMAQ) modeling system, EPA/600/R-99/030, U.S. EPA (1999).
R.E. Carbone, Atmospheric observations in weather prediction. In: R.E. Pielke andSr. R.E. Pielke Storms, Vol 1, Routledge Press, London (2000).
I.P. Castro,A. Kumar,W.H. Snyder andS.P.S. Arya, Removal of slightly heavy gases from a valley by crosswinds, J. Haz. Mat. 34 (1993) 271–293.
S.J. Caughey,J.C. Wyngaard andJ.C. Kaimal, Turbulence in the evolving stable boundary layer, J. Atmospheric. Sci. 36 (1979) 1041–1052.
J.E. Cermak,D.J. Lombardi andR.S. Thompson, Applications of physical modeling to the investigation of air pollution problems in urban areas, presented at 67th Annual Meeting of Air Poll. Control Assoc., June 9–13, Denver, CO. APCA paper # 74–160 (1974).
S.T. Chan,D.E. Stevens andR.L. Lee, A model for flow and dispersion around buildings and its validation using laboratory measurements, Proc. 3rd Symposium on the Urban Environment, 14–18 August, Davis, CA. (2000) pp. 56–57.
J.S. Chang,R.A. Brost,I.S.A. Isaksen,S. Madronich,P. Middleton,W.R. Stockwell andC.J. Walcek, A three-dimensional Eulerian acid deposition model: Physical concepts and formulation, J. Geophy. Res. 92 (1987) 14681–14700.
J.S. Chang,P.B. Middleton,W.R. Stockwell,C.J. Walcek,J.E. Pleim,H.H. Landsford,S. Madronich,F.S. Binkowski,N.L. Seaman andD.R. Stauffer, The Regional acid deposition model and engineering model, NAPAP SOS/T Report 4, in National Acid Precipitation Assessment Program: State of Science and Technology, Volume 1, National Acid Precipitation Program, 722 Jackson Place, N. W.,Washington, D.C. September (1990).
S.A. Cheatham,B.Z. Cybyk andJ.P. Boris, Simulation of fluid dynamics around a cubical building, Proc. 3 Symposium on the Urban Environment, 14–18 August, Davis, CA. (2000) pp. 46–47.
J.K.S. Ching,J.M. Godowitch andJ.F. Clarke, Urban scale variations of turbulent energy fluxes, Presented at AMS Specialty Conf. on Air Quality Modeling of the Nonhomogeneous, Nonstationary Urban Boundary Layer, Oct. 31-Nov. 4, Baltimore, MD (1983).
R.M. Cionco, A mathematical model for air flow in a vegetative canopy, J. Appl. Meteorol. 4 (1995) 517.
R.M. Cionco, Design and execution of Project WIND. In: Proc 19th Conference of Agricultural and Forest Meteorology (Charleston), American Meteorology Society, Boston, MA (1989).
R.N. Cionco and others, An overview of MADONA: a multinational field study of high resolution meteorology and diffusion over complex terrain, Bull. Am. Met. Soc. 80 (1999) 5–19.
J.S. Cole andH.J.S. Fernando, Some aspects of the decay of convective turbulence, Fluid Dyn. Res. 23 (1998) 167–176
J.P. Collins,A. Kinzig,N.B. Grimm,W.F. Fagan,D. Hope,J. Wu andE.T. Borer, A new urban ecology. Am. Sci. 88 (2000) 416–425.
R.L. Coulter, A case study of turbulence in the stable Nocturnal Boundary Layer, Boundary-Layer Meteorol., 52 (1990) 75–92.
C.F. Cox,B.Z. Cybyk,J.P. Boris,Y.T. Fung andS.W. Chang, Coupled microscale-mesoscale modeling of contaminant transport in urban environments, Proc. 3rd Symposium on the Urban Environment, 14–18 August, Davis, CA. (2000) pp. 66–67.
W.F. Dabberdt,F.L. Ludwig andW.B. Jr. Johnson, Validation and applications of an urban diffusion model for vehicular pollutants, Atmospheric. Environ. 7 (1973) 603–618.
W.F. Dabberdt,J. Hales,S. Zubrick,A. Cook,W. Krajewski,J.C. Doran,C. Mueller,C. King,R.N. Keener,R. Bornstein,D. Rodenhuis,P. Kocin,M.A. Rossetti,F. Sharrocks,E.M., Sr., Stanley, Forcast Issues in the Urban Zone: Report of the 10th prospectus Development Team of the U.S. Weather Research Program, Bull. Amer. Meteorol. Soc. 81 (2000) 2047–2064.
B. Davidson andP.K. Rao, Experimental studies of the valley-plainwind, Int. J. Air Water Pollu. 7 (1963) 907–923.
I.P.D. De Silva,A. Brandt,L.J. Montenegro andH.J.S. Fernando, Gradient Richardson number measurements in a stratified shear layer, Dyn. Atmospheric. Oceans. 30 (1979) 47–63.
D.G.G. De Pury andG.D. Farquhar, Simple scaling of photosynthesis from leaves to canopies without the errors of big-leaf models, Plant, Cell and Environ. 20 (1997) 537–557.
J.W. Deardorff, Convective velocity and temperature scales for the unstable planetary boundary layer and for Rayleigh convection, J. Atmospheric. Sci. 27 (1970) 1211–1213.
J.W. Deardorff, Mixed-layer entrainment: A review. In: J.C. Weil (ed.) 7th Symposium on Turbulence and Diffusion., Am. Meteorol. Soc. (1985) pp. 39–42.
J.W. Deardorff,G.E. Willis andD.K. Lilly, Laboratory investigation of non-steady penetrative convection, J. Fluid Mech. 35 (1969) 7–31.
J.W. Deardoff,G.E. Willis andB.H. Stockton, Laboratory studies of the entrainment zoone of a convectively mixed layer, J. Fluid Mech. 100 (1980) 41–64.
W. Debler andS.W. Armfield, The purging of saline water from rectangular and trapezoidal cavities by an overflow of turbulent sweet water, J. Hydr. Res. 35 (1997) 43–62.
H. Derbyshire, Stable boundary layers: observations, models and variability, Part I: Modeling and measurements, Boundary-Layer Meteorol. 74 (1995a) 19–54.
H. Derbyshire, Stable boundary layers: observations, models and variability Part II: Data analysis and averaging effects, Boundary-Layer Meteorol. 75 (1995b) 1–24.
S.H. Derbyshire, Nieuwstadt's stable boundary layer revisited, Q. J. Roy. Meteorol. Soc. 116 (1990) 127–158.
M.H. Dickerson, Mascon-A mass consistent atmospheric flux model for regions with complex terrain, J. Appl. Meteorol. 17 (1978) 241–253.
M.H. Dickerson andP.H. Gudiksen, Atmospheric studies in complex Terrain, Tech Progress Report FY-1979 through FY-1983, ASCOT 84–1/UCID-19851, U. S. Dept. of Energy, Lawrence Livermore Natl. Lab., Livermore, CA (1984).
R.E. Dickinson,A.N. Hahmann andQ. Shao, Commentary onMecca sensitivity studies. In: Howe W andHenderson-Sellers A (Eds.) Assessing Climate Change. Sidney: Gordon and Breach Science Publishers (1997) pp. 195–206.
Doran, J.C., 1991: The effects of ambient winds on valley drainage flows, Boundary-Layer Meteorol., 55, 177–189.
J.C. Doran,T.W. Horst andC.D. Whiteman, The development and structure of nocturnal slope winds in a simple valley, Boundary-Layer Meteorol. 52 (1990) 41–68.
J. Dudhia,D. Gill,Y-R. Guo,K. Manning,W. Wang andJ. Chiszar, PSU/NCARMesoscale modeling system tutorial class notes and user's guide: MM5 modeling system version 3, NCAR (2000).
F. Ellefsen, A fine resolution urban terrain characteristics database of greater St. Louis, Missouri. STAS Report for U.S. Army Research Laboratory-BED, Contact: R.M. Cionco at USARL-BED,Adelphi, MD, USA (1993).
W.P. Elliot, The growth of the atmospheric internal boundary layer, Trans. Am. Geophys. Union, 39 (1958) 1048–1054.
A.W. Ellis,M.L. Hilderbrandt andH.J.S. Fernando, Evidence of lower atmospheric ozone 'sloshing’ in an urban valley, Phys. Geogr. 20 (1999) 520–536.
A.W. Ellis,M.L. Hilderbrandt,W. Thomas andH.J.S. Fernando, A case study of the climatic mechanisms contributing to the transport of lower atmospheric ozone across metropolitan Phoenix area, J. Climate Res. 15 (2000) 13–31.
T.H. Ellison andJ.S. Turner, Turbulent entrainment in stratified flows, J. Fluid Mech. 6 (1959) 423–448.
M.H. Emery,A.Y. Chtchelkanova,B.Z. Cybyk,J.P. Boris,J.H. Shinn andF.J. Bouveia, Detailed modeling of air flow around a complex building, Proc. 3rd Symposium on the Urban Environment, 14–18 August, Davis, CA. (2000) 48–49.
J.D. Fast,J.C. Doran,W.J. Shaw,R.L. Coulter andT.J. Martin, The evolution of the boundary layer and its effect on air chemistry in the Phoenix area. J. Geophys. Res. 105 (2000) 22,833–22,848.
G.D. Farquhar andS. von Caemmerer, Modelling of photosynthetic response to environmental conditions. In: Lange OL,Noble PS,Osmond, CB,Ziegler H (Eds.), Physiological Plant Ecology II, Encycl. Plant Phys. (1982) pp. 549–587, Berlin, Springer-Verlag.
C. Freytag, MERKUR-results: aspects of the temperature field and the energy budget in a large alpine valley during mountain and valley wind, Contrib. Atmospheric. Phys. 58 (1985) 458–476.
C. Freytag, Results from the MERKUR experiment: Mass budget and vertical motions in a large valley during mountain and valley wind, Meteorol. Atmospheric. Phys. 37 (1987) 129–140.
H.J.S. Fernando, Turbulent mixing in stratified fluids, Ann. Rev. Fluid Mech. 23 (1991) 455–493.
H.J.S. Fernando, Migration of density interfaces subjected to differential turbulent forcing, Geophys. Astrophys. Fluid Dyn. 78 (1995) 1–20.
H.J.S. Fernando andJ.C.R. Hunt, Some aspects of turbulence and mixing in stably stratified fluids, Dyn. Atmospheric. Oceans 23 (1996) 35–62.
J.J. Finnigan andP.J. Mulhearn, Modeling waving crops in a wind tunnel, Bound. Layer Meteorol. 14 (1978) 253–277.
S. Galmarini,C. Beets,P.G. Duynkerke andJ. Vila-Guerau De Arellano, Stable nocturnal boundary layers: A comparison of one-dimensional and large-eddy simulation models, Boundary-Layer Meteorol. 88 (1998) 181–210.
J. Gandemer, Inconfort du au vent aux abords des batiments: concepts aerodynamiques, cahiers du centre scientifique et technique du batiment, No. 170, Cahier 1384. C.S.T.B., Nantes, France. Also Avail. in Translation as NBS Tech. Note 710–719, March 1978 (1976) 48 pp
J.R. Garratt, Review: the atmospheric boundary layer, Earth-Science Rev. 37 (1994) 89–134.
S. Goldstein, W akes. Ch. XIII. In: Modern Developments In Fluid Dynamics, 11, Dover Publications, New York, NY (1965) pp. 548–600.
W. Gong,P.A. Taylor andA. Dornbrack, Turbulent boundary-layer flow over fixed aerodynamically rough two-dimensional sinusoidal waves, J. Fluid Mech. 312 (1996) 1–37.
A.A. Grachev,H.J.S. Fernando,J.C.R. Hunt,E.P. Pardyjak,I. Oroud,N.S. Berman,F. Yu andG. Wang, The structure of the atmospheric boundary layer over the complex terrain of Phoenix valley, Proc. of the 13th Symposium on Boundary Layers and Turbulence, 79th AMS Meeting, Jan. 10–15, Dallas, Texas (1999) pp. 331–334.
A.L.M. Grant, An observation study of the evening transition boundary-layer, Q. J. Roy. Meteorol. Soc. 123 (1997) 657–677.
G.A. Grell,J. Dudhia andD.R. Stauffer, A Description of the Fifth-Generation Penn State/NCAR Mesoscale Model (MM5), NCAR Technical Note, NCAR/TN-398+STR (1994) pp. 122.
S. Grossman-Clarke,B.A. Kimball,D.J. Hunsaker,S.P. Long,R.L. Garcia,T. Kartschall,G.W. Wall,P.J., Jr Pinter,F. Wechsung andR.L. LaMorte, Effects of elevated CO2 on canopy transpiration in senescent spring wheat, Agr. Forest Meteorol. 93 (1999) 95–109.
H. Hanazaki, A numerical study of nonlinear waves in a transcritical flow of stratified fluid past an obstacle, Phys. Fluidsm. A4 (1999) 2230–2243.
S.R. Hanna, Urban diffusion problems. Ch. 6 in Lectures on Air Pollution and Environmental Impact Analyses, D. A. Haugen, Coord., Amer. Meteorol. Soc., Boston, MA (1975) 209–227.
S.R. Hanna andD.G. Strimaitis, Rugged terrain effects on diffusion. In: Atmospheric Process Over Complex Terrain, Meteorol. Monogr., 23, Amer. Meteorol. Soc., Boston, MA (1990) pp. 109–142.
S.R. Hanna,G.A. Briggs andR.P. Jr., Hosker, Handbook on Atmospheric Diffusion. U.S. Dept. of Energy Tech. Info. Center, Oak Ridge, TN, DOE/TIC-11223. Avail. NTIS, Springfield, VA, as DE8 2002 045 (1982) 102 pp.
S.L. Heisler,P. Hyde,M. Hubble,F. Keene,G. Neuroth,M. Ringsmuth, andW.R. Oliver, Reanalysis of the metropolitan Phoenix voluntary early ozone plan (VEOP). ENSR Document 0493–014–710 (1997).
B. Hennemuth, Temperature field and energy budget of a small Alpine valley, Contrib. Atmospheric. Phys. 58 (1985) 545–559.
B. Hennemuth, Thermal asymmetry and cross-valley circulation in a small alpine valley, Boundary Layer Meteorol. 36 (1986) 371–394.
B. Hennemuth andU. Kohler, Estimation of the energy balance of the Dischma Valley, Arch. Meteorol. Geophys. Bioklimatol. Ser. B34 (1984) 97–119.
A.W. Hogan, andM.G. Ferrick, Observations in nonurban heat islands, J. Appl. Meteorol. 37 (1997) 232–236.
A.A.M. Holstag andF.T.M. Nieuwstadt, Scaling the Atmospheric Boundary Layer, Boundary-Layer Meteorol. 36 (1986) 201–209.
T.W. Horst,K.J. Allwine andC.D. Whiteman, A thermal energy budget for nocturnal drainage flow in a simple valley, Preprints, Fourth Conf. on Mountain Meteorology, Seattle, WA, American Meteorology Society (1987) pp. 15–19.
T.W. Horst,D.C. Bader andC.D. Whiteman, Comparison of observed and simulated nocturnal valley thermal energy budgets, Proc. Int. Conf. On Mountain Meteorology and ALPEX, Garmisch-Partenkirchen, Germany, Germ. Meteorol. Soc. (1989) pp. 127.
R.P. Jr. Hosker, Empirical estimation of wake cavity size behind block-type structures, In Preprints of Fourth Symposium on Turb., Diff. and Air Poll., Jan. 15–18, Reno, NV, Am. Meteorol. Soc., Boston, MA (1979) pp. 92–107.
R.P. Jr. Hosker, Flow and dispersion near obstacles. In: D. Randerson, (Ed.), Ch. 7 of Atmospheric Science and Power Production, U.S. Dept. Energy, Tech. Info. Center, DOE/TIC-2760 (DE 84005177),Oak Ridge, TN (1984).
R.P. Jr. Hosker, The effects of buildings on local dispersion. In: Modeling the Urban Boundary Layer, Am. Meteorol. Soc. (1987) pp. 95–159.
W.G. Hoydysh,R.A. Griffiths andY. Ogawa, A scale model study of the dispersion of pollution in street canyons. Presented at 67th Annual Meeting of Air Poll. Control Assoc., June 9–13, Denver, CO. APCA (1974).
A. Huber,M. Bolstad,M. Freeman,S. Rida,E. Bish andK. Kuehlert, Addressing human exposures to air pollutants around buildings in urban areas with computational fluid dynamics (CFD) models, 3rd Symposium on the Urban Environment, 14–18 August, Davis, CA. (2000) pp. 62–63.
J.C.R. Hunt, Diffusion in the stably stratified atmospheric boundary layer, J. Clim. App. Meteorol. 24 (1985) 1187–1195.
J.C.R. Hunt, How cities will look in the 21st century? Habitat II Conference, Publisher: United Nations Center for Regional Development, Nagoya, Japan (1996).
J.C.R. Hunt andJ.E. Simpson, Atmospheric boundary layers over non-homogeneous terrain. In: E. Plate (ed.), Ch. 7 of Engineering Meteorol., Elsevier (1982) pp. 269–318.
J.C.R. Hunt,J.C. Kaimal,J.E. Gaynor, Some observations of turbulence structure in stable layers, Q. J. Roy. Meteorol. Soc. 111 (1985) 793–815.
J.C.R. Hunt,Y. Feng,P.F. Linden,M.D. Greenslade andS.D. Mobbs, Low-Froude-number stable flows past mountains, Il Nuovo Cimento 20C (1997) 261–272.
J.C.R. Hunt,H.J.S. Fernando,A.A. Grachev,E.P. Pardyjak,N.S. Berman, andF. Yu, Slope-breezes and weak air movements in a wide enclosed valley, submitted for publication (2000).
T. Hussain andB.E. Lee, A wind tunnel study of the mean pressure forces acting on large groups of low rise buildings, J. Wind Ind. Aerodyn. 6 (1980) 207–225.
S.B. Idso, Non-water stressed baselines: a key to measuring and interpreting plant water stress, Agr. Forest Meteorol. 24 (1982) 45–55.
IGPO, Land Surface Parameterizations/ Soil-Vegetation-Atmosphere-Transfer Schemes Workshop. IGPO Publication Series 31 (1997).
N. Isyumov andA.G. Davenport, The ground level wind environment in built-up areas, Proc. Fourth International Conference on Wind Effects on Buildings and Structures, September 8–12, 1977, Heathrow, Cambridge University Press, London (1975) pp. 403–422.
P.S. Jackson andJ.C.R. Hunt, Turbulent wind flow over low hills, Q. J. RoyMeteorol. Soc. 101 (1975) 929–955.
C.M.J. Jacobs andH.A.R. De Bruin, The sensitivity of regional transpiration to land-surface characteristics: significance of feedback, J. Climate 5 (1992) 683–698.
P.G. Jarvis andK.G. McNaughton, Stomatal control of transpiration: scaling up from leaf to region, Adv. Ecological Res. 15 (1986) 1–49.
N. Jerram,S.E. Belcher andJ.C.R. Hunt, Turbulent flow through a distributed force-a model for the wind with in and above an urban canopy. In: R.J. Perkins andS.E. Belcher, (eds.) Flow and Dispersion through Group of Obstacles. Clarendon Press, London (1997) pp. 157–175.
N. Jerram,J.R. Perkins,J.C.H. Fung,M.J. Davidson,S.E. Belcher andJ.C.R. Hunt, Atmospheric flow through groups of buildings and dispersion from localized sources. In: J.E. Cermak,A. D. Davenport,E.J. Plate, andD.X. Viegas (eds.), Wind Climate In Cities. Kluwer Academic Publishers, Dordrecht (1994) pp. 109–130.
W.B. Johnson,R.C. Sklarew andD.B. Turner, Urban air quality simulation modeling. In: A. C. Stern, (ed.), Ch. 10 of Air Pollution, third edition, Vol. I. Academic Press, New York, NY (1976) pp. 503–562.
W.B. Johnson,F.L. Ludwig,W.F. Dabberdt andR.J. Allen, An urban diffusion simulation model of carbon monoxide, J. Air Pollut. Control Assoc. 23 (1973) 490–498.
R. Joumard, Ausbreitungsmodelle Fur Verkehrs-Immissionen. In: K. Hoffman,P. Leisen, andH. Waldemeyer, (eds.) Strassenschluchten undVergleich zu franzosischen Messungen, Abgasbelastungen durch den Kraftfahrzeugverkehr, TUV Rhineland, Germany (1982) pp. 187–203.
J.C. Kaimal, Turbulence spectra, length scales and structure parameters in the stable surface layer, Boundary-Layer Meteorol. 4 (1972) 290–309.
J.C. Kaimal,J.C. Wyngaard,D.A. Haugen,O.R. Cote,Y. Izumi,S.J. Caughey, andC.J. Readings, Turbulence structure in the convective boundary layer, J. Atmospheric. Sci. 33 (1976) 2152–2169.
J.C. Kaimal andJ.J. Finnigan, Atmospheric Boundary Layer Flows, Oxford University Press (1994).
H. Kaplan andN. Dinar, A Lagrangian dispersion model for calculating concentration distribution within a built-up domain, Atmospheric. Environ. 30 (1996) 4197–4207.
T. Kawatani andR.N. Meroney, Turbulence and wind speed characteristics within a model canopy flow field, Agr. Meteorol. 7 (1970) 143–158.
J.J. Kim andJ.J. Baik, A numerical study of thermal effects on flow and pollutant dispersionin urban street canyons, J. Appl. Meteorol. 38 (1999) 1249–1261.
B.A. Kimball,R.L. LaMorte,P.J. Jr. Pinter,G.W. Wall,D.J. Hunsaker,F.J. Adamsen,S.W. Leavitt,T.L. Thompson,A.D. Matthias andT.J. Brooks, Free-air CO2 enrichment and soil nitrogen effects on energy balance and evapotranspiration of wheat, Water Res. Res. 35 (1999) 1179–1190.
J.C. Klewicki,J.F. Foss andJ.M. Wallace, High Reynolds number boundary layer turbulence in the atmospheric surface layer above westerns Utah's salt flata. In: Donnelly, R.J. andSreenivasan, K.R. (eds.) Flow in Ultra High Reynolds and Rayleigh Numbers: A Status Report., Springer Verlag (1998) pp. 450–458.
J. Kondo,T. Kuwagata andS. Haginoya, Heat budget analysis of nocturnal cooling and daytime heating in a basin, J. Atmospheric. Sci. 46 (1989) 2917–2933.
S. Kotaki andT. Sano, Simulation model of air pollution in complex terrains including streets and buildings, Atmospheric. Environ. 15 (1981) 1001–1009.
R.A. Kropfli andN.M. Kohn, Persistent horizontal rolls in the urban mixed layer as revealed by dual-Doppler radar, J. Appl. Meteorol. 17 (1978) 669–676.
V.P. Kukharets andL.R. Tsvang, Atmospheric turbulence characteristics over temperatureinhomogeneous land surface, Part I: Inhomogeneities of land surface temperature, Bound. Layer Meteorol. 86 (1998) 89–101.
T. Kuwagata andF. Kimura, F., Daytime boundary layer evolution in a deep valley, Part II: Numerical simulation of the cross-valley circulation, J. Appl. Meteorol. 36 (1997) 883–895.
J.P. L'homme andB. Monteny, Theoretical relationship between stomatal resistance and surface temperatures in sparse vegetation. Agr. Forest Meteorol. 104 (2000) 119–131.
I.Y. Lee andH.M. Park, Parameterization of the pollutant transport and dispersion in urban street canyons, Atmospheric. Environ. 29 (1994) 2343–2349.
R.L. Lee,R.J. Calhoun,S.T. Chan,J. Jr. Leone,J. Shinn andD.E. Stevens, Urban dispersion CFD modeling, Fact or Fiction?, 3rd Symposium on the Urban Environment, 14–18 August, Davis, CA. (2000) pp. 54–55.
R. Leuning,F.X. Dunin andY.P. Wang, A two-leaf model for canopy conductance, photosynthesis and partitioning of available energy. II. Comparison with measurements. Agr. Forest Meteorol. 91 (1998) 113–125.
R. Leuning,F.M. Kelliher,D.G.G. De Pury andE.D. Schulze, Leaf nitrogen, photosynthesis, conductance and transpiration: scaling from leaves to canopies. Plant Cell Environ. 18 (1995) 1183–1200.
Y-L. Lin andR.B. Smith, Transient dynamics of airflow near a local heat source, J. Atmospheric. Sci. 43 (1986) 40–49.
E. Jr. Logan andD.S. Barber, I, Effect of lateral spacing on wake characteristics of buildings, NASA Contractor Report CR-3337, Avail. NTIS, Springfield, VA (1980) 74 pp.
J. Lu,S.P. Arya,W.H. Synder and R.E. Jr. Lawson, A laboratory study of the urban heat island in a calm and stably stratified environment, Part I: Temperature field, J. Appl. Meteorol. 36 (1997a) 1377–1391.
J. Lu,S.P. Arya,W.H. Synder andR.E. Jr. Lawson, A laboratory study of the urban heat Island in a calm and stably stratified environment, Part II: Velocity field, J. Appl. Meteorol. 36 (1997b) 1392–1402.
R. Lu andR.P. Turco, Air pollution transport in a coastal environment. Part 1: Two dimensional simulations of sea breeze and mountain effects. J. Atmospheric. Sci. 51 (1994) 2285–2308.
F.L. Ludwig andJ.H.S. Kealoha, Urban climatological studies, Final Report, Contract CODSDAHC–20–67-C-0136, Stanford Res. Instit., CA (1968).
R.W. Macdonald, Modeling the mean velocity profile in the urban canopy layer. Bound. Layer Meteorol. 97 (2000) 25–45.
MAG, Maricopa Association of Governments, Carbon Monoxide Hot Spot Analysis in the Phoenix Urban Area, Report, # T133–80–4, Maricopa Association of Governments Transportation and Planning Office (1980).
L. Mahrt, Relation of slope winds to the ambient flow over gentle terrain, Boundary-layer Meteorol. 53 (1990) 93–102.
L. Mahrt, Stratified atmospheric boundary layers and breakdown of models, Theor. Comp. Fluid Dynamics 11 (1998) 263–279.
Y.S. Malhi, The significance of the dual solutions for heat fluxes measured by the temperature fluctuation method in stable conditions, Boundary-Layer Meteorol. 74 (1995) 389–396.
M. Maki,T. Harimaya andK. Kikuchi, Heat budget studies on nocturnal cooling in a basin, J. Meteorol. Soc. Japan 64 (1986) 727–740.
P.J. Mason andJ.C. King, Measurements and predictions of flow and turbulence over an isolated hill of moderate slope, Q. J. Roy. Meteorol. Soc. 111 (1985) 627–640.
P.J. Mason andR.I. Sykes, Flow over an isolated hill of moderate slope, Q. J. Roy. Meteorol. Soc. 105 (1979) 385–395.
K. McKeen, Taming the city's man-made winds. Discover 5 (1984) 94–97
J.L. McNaughton andP.G. Jarvis, Predicting effects of vegetation changes on transpiration and evaporation. In: Kozlowski, T.T. (ed.) Water Deficits and Plant Growth., New York Academic Press. (1983) pp. 1–47.
K.G. McNaughton andP.G. Jarvis, Effects of spatial scale on stomatal control of transpiration. Agr. Forest Meteorol. 54 (1991) 279–301.
R.E. Mickle,N.J. Cook andA.M. Hoff, The Askervein hill Project: Vertical profiles of wind and turbulence, Boundary-Layer Meteorol., 43 (1988) 143–169.
C.H. Moeng andJ.C. Wyngaard, Statistics of conservative scalars in the convective boundary layer, J. Atmospheric. Sci. 41 (1984) 3161–3169.
J.L. Monteith, Evaporation and the environment. Symp. Soc. Exp. Biology 19 (1965) 205–234.
R.E. Morris,T.C. Meyers, User's guide for the urban Airshed Model, Volume 1: User's Manual for UAM(CB-IV). EPA-450/4–90–007A, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC (1990).
P.J. Mulhearn andJ.J. Finnigan, Turbulent flow over a very rough, random surface, Bound. Layer Meteorol. 15 (1978) 109–132.
National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS), 1997, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
K. Nagel,S. Rasmussen andC.L. Barrett, Network Traffic as a Sel-Organized Critical Phenomena, LA-UR 96–659, Los Alamos National Laboratory, USA (1996).
C.J. Nappo, Sporadic breakdowns of stability in the PBL over simple and complex terrain, Boundary-Layer Meteorol. 54 (1991) 69–87.
F.T.M. Nieuwstadt andR.A. Brost. The decay of convective turbulence, J. Atmospheric. Sci. 43 (1986) 532–546
D.O. Oberdorster,R.M. Gelein,J. Ferin andB. Weiss, Association of particulate air pollution and acute mortality; Involvement of ultrafine particles. Inhal. Toxicology 7 (1995) 111–124.
T.R. Oke andF.G. Hannell, The form of the urban heat island in Hamilton, Canada. In: Urban Climates, WMO Tech. Note 108, No. 108 (1970) pp. 113–126.
T.R. Oke, The surface energy budgets of urban areas. Presented at the WMO Tech. Conf. on Urban Climat. and its Appl., with Special Regard to Tropical Area, Mexico City, Nov. 26–30 (1984).
R.T. Oke, The surface energy budget of urban areas. In: Modeling the Urban Boundary Layer, Am. Meteorol. Soc. (1987) pp. 2–51.
T.R. Oke, The heat island of the urban boundary layer: Characteristics, causes and effects. In: J.E. Cermak, A.D. Davenport, E.J. Plate, and D.X. Viegas (eds.) Wind Climate in Cities, pp. 801–807, NATO ASI Series E, Vol. 277, Kluwer Academic (1995) pp. 801–807.
M.K. O'Rourke et al., Building materials and importance of house dust mite exposure in the Sonoran Desert, Proceedings of the 6th In. Conf. On Indoor Air Quality, Helsinki (1993) pp. 4,155–160.
Y.D. Oyha,E. Neff andR.N. Meroney, Turbulence structure in a stratified boundary layer under stable conditions, Boundary-Layer Meteorol. 83 (1997) 139–161.
A.C. Petersen,B. Cees,H. van Dop andP.G. Duynkerke, Mass-flux characteristics of reactive scalars in the convective boundary layer, J. Atmospheric. Sci. 56 (1999) 37–56.
R.A. Pielke, Mesoscale Meteorology Modeling, Academic Press (1984) pp. 612.
R.A. Pielke,W.R. Cotton,R.L. Walko,C.J. Tremback,W.A. Lyons,L.D. Grasso,M.E. Nicholls,M.D. Moran,D.A. Wesley,T.J. Lee andJ.H. Copeland, A comprehensive meteorological modeling system-RAMS, Meteorol. Atmospheric. Phys., 49 (1992) 69–91.
M. Piper,J.C. Wyngaard,W.H. Snyder andR.E. Jr. Lawson, Top-down, bottom-up diffusion experiments in a water convection tank, J. Atmospheric. Sci. 52 (1995) 3607–3619.
A.D. Pendwarden andA.F.E. Wise, Wind environment around buildings, Building research Establishment Report, Her Majesty's Stationery Office, London, U.K. (1975) p. 52.
J.M. Plaza,M. Pujadas andB. Artinano, Formation and transport of the Madrid ozone plume. J. Air & Waste Man. Assoc. 47 (1997) 766–774.
J.S. Puttock andJ.C.R. Hunt, Turbulent diffusion from sources near obstacles with separated wakes-part I, and eddy diffusivity model, Atmospheric. Environ. 13 (1979) 1–13.
Y. Qin andS.C. Kot, Dispersion of vehicular emission in street canyons, Guangzhou City, South China (P.R.C.), Atmospheric. Environ. 27B (1993) 283–291.
M.R. Raupach, Influences of local feedback on land-air exchanges of energy and carbon. Global Change Bio. 4 (1998) 447–494.
M.R. Raupach andJ.J. Finnigan, Single-layer models of evaporation from plant canopies are incorrect but useful, whereas multi-layer models are correct but useless: discussion. Australian J. Plant Phys. 15 (1988) 705–716.
M.R. Raupach andA.S. Thom, Turbulence in and above plant canopies, Ann. Rev. Fluid Mech., 13 (1981) 97–129.
S. Rafailidis, Influence of building areal density and roof shape on the wind characteristics above a town. Bound. Layer Meteorol. 85 (1997) 255–271.
S. Rafailidis, Wind induced flows above buildings and inside street canyons: Building density, roof shape and arrangement effects. J. Fluid Mech., (2001) submitted.
S. Rafailidis andM. Schatzmann, Physical Modeling of car exhaust dispersion in urban street canyons-The effect of Slanted Roofs. In: S.E. Gryning andF. Schiermeier (eds.), Air Pollution Modelling and its Applications XI, Plenum Press, New York, (1996) pp. 653–654.
L.W. Richards,C.L. Blanchard andD.L. Blumenthal (eds.), Navajo Generating Station visiblity final report. Rep. STI-90200–1124-FR, Sonoma Technology. Inc., Santa Rosa, CA (1991) 408 pp. [Available from Salt River Project, P. O. Box 52025, Phoenix, AZ 85072–2025].
J.H. Schreffler, Detection of centripetal heat island circulations from tower data in St. Louis, Bound. Layer Meteorol. 15 (1978) 229–242.
Y. Sasaki, Some basic formalisms in numerical variables analysis, Mon. Wea. Rev. 98 (1970) 875–883.
C. Sherman, A mass-consistent model for wind fields over complex terrain, J. Appl. Meteorol. 17 (1978) 312–319.
E.D. Siggia, High Rayleigh number convection, Ann. Rev. Fluid Mech. 26 (1994) 137–168.
E.J. Simpson, Gravity currents in the environment and the laboratory, Cambridge University Press (1997).
W.S. Smith,J.M. Reisner,D.S. Decroix,M.J. Brown,R.H. Lee,S.T. Chan, andD.E. Stevens, A CFD model intercomparison and validation using high resolution wind tunnel data, 11th Conference on the Applications of Air Pollution Meteorology with A& WMA, 9–14 January, Long Beach, CA. (2000) 41–46.
W.H. Snyder,L.H. Khurshudyan,I.V. Nekrasov,R.E. Jr. Lawson andR.S. Thompson, Flow and dispersion of pollutants within two-dimensional valleys, Atmospheric. Environ. 25 (1990) 1347–1375.
Z. Sorbjan, Decay of convective turbulence revisited, Boundary-Layer Meteorol. 82 (1997) 501–515.
E.J. Strang andH.J.S. Fernando, Entrainment and mixing stratified shear flows, J. FluidMech. (2000) In Press.
R.B. Stull, An introduction to boundary layer meteorology, Kluwer Academic Publisher (1988) pp. 666.
P.A. Taylor,R.E. Mickle,J.R. Salmon andH.W. Teunissen, The Kettles Hill experiment-site description and mean flow results, Internal Report Aqrb–83–0020L, Atmospheric. Environ. Service, Downsview, Ont., Canada (1983).
A.A. Townsend, Self-preserving flow inside a turbulent boundary layer, J. Fluid Mech. 22 (1965) 773–797.
A.A. Townsend, The flow in a turbulent boundary layer after a sudden change in surface roughness, J. Fluid Mech., 26 (1966) 255–266.
D.B. Turner, Atmospheric dispersion modeling, a critical review, J. Air Pollut. Control Assoc. 29 (1979) 502–519.
Z. Uchijima andJ.L. Wright, An experimental study of air flow in a corn plant air-layer, Bull. Natl. Inst. Agric. Sci. (Jpn) Ser. A11 (1964) 19–65.
I. Uno,H. Ueda andS. Wakamatsu, Numerical modeling of the nocturnal urban boundary layer, Boundary-Layer Meteorol. 49 (1989) 77–98.
A. Urano,T. Ichinose andK. Hanaki, Thermal environment simulation for three dimensional replacement of urban activity, J. Wind Eng. Ind. Aero. 81 (1999) 197–210.
User's guide to CAL3QHC version 2.0, A modeling methodology for predicting pollutant concentrations near roadway intersections, EPA-454/R–92–006, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (1994).
K.D. Van der Hout,H.P. Baars andN.J. Duijm, Effects of Buildings and Trees on Air Pollution by Road Traffic, T.N.O. Div. Of Technology for Society, P.O. Box 217, NL-2600 AE Delft, Netherlands, 6 (1989)
I. Vergeiner andE. Dreiseitl, Valley winds and slope winds-observations and elementary thoughts, Meteorol. Atmospheric. Phys. 36 (1987) 264–286.
J.X.L. Wang andJ.K. Angell, Air stagnation climatology for the United States (1948–1998). NOAA/Air Resources Laboratory ATLAS No. 1 (1999).
Y.P. Wang,R. Leuning, A two-leaf model for canopy conductance, photosynthesis and partitioning of available energy I:Model description and comparison with a multi-layered model. Agr. Forest Meteorol. 91 (1998) 89–111.
A.H. Weber andR.J. Kurzeja, Nocturnal planetary boundary layer structure and turbulence episodes during the Project STABLE field program, J. Appl. Meteorol. 30 (1991) 1117–1133.
C.D. Whiteman, Morning transition tracer experiments in a deep narrow valley, J. Appl. Meteorol. 28 (1989) 625–635.
C.D. Whiteman, Observations of thermally developed wind systems in mountainous terrain. In: W. Blumen (Ed.), Atmospheric Processes Over Complex Terrain, Meteorol. Monogr. 23(45), American Meteorology Society, Boston, Massachusetts (1990) pp. 5–42.
C.D. Whiteman andS. Barr, Atmospheric mass transport by along-valley wind systems in a deep Colorado Valley, J. Climate Appl. Meteorol. 25 (1996) 1205–1212.
C.D. Whiteman andJ.C. Doran, The relationship between overlying synoptic-scale flows and winds within a valley, J. Appl. Meteorol. 32 (1993) 1669–1682.
C.D. Whiteman,T.B. McKee andJ.C. Doran, Boundary layer evolution within a canyon land basin, Part I: Mass, heat and moisture budgets from observations, J. Appl. Meteorol. 35 (1996) 2145–2161.
D.J. Wilson andR.E. Britter, Estimates of building surface concentrations from nearby point sources, Atmospheric. Environ. 16 (1982) 2631–2646.
K.K. Wong andR.A. Dirks, Mesoscale perturbations on airflow in the urban mixing layer, J. Appl. Meteorol. 17 (1978) 677–688
S.C. Wong,I.R. Cowan,G.D. Farquhar, Stomatal conductance correlates with photosynthetic capacity, Nature 282 (1979) 424–426.
P.H. Wood, Calculation of the neutral wind profile following a large step change in surface roughness, Q. J. Roy. Meteorol. Soc. 104 (1978) 383–392.
M. Xue,K.K. Droegemeier,V. Wong,A. Shapiro andK. Brewster, ARPS Version 4.0 user's guide (1995) pp. 380.
T. Yamada, A numerical simulation of nocturnal drainage flow, J. Meteorol. Soc. Japan 59 (1981) 108–122.
T. Yamada, Building and terrain effects in a mesoscale model, 11th Conference on the Applications of Air Pollution Meteorology with A& WMA, 9–14 January, Long Beach, CA (2000) pp. 215–220.
M.M. Zdravkovich, Interstitial flow in tube arrays: A series of formidable paradoxes. In: R.J. Perkins andS.E. Belcher, eds., Flow and Dispersion Through Groups of Obstacles Clarendon Press (1997) pp. 141–142.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Fernando, H., Lee, S., Anderson, J. et al. Urban Fluid Mechanics: Air Circulation and Contaminant Dispersion in Cities. Environmental Fluid Mechanics 1, 107–164 (2001). https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1011504001479
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1011504001479