Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Children's Testimony: A Review of Research on Memory for Past Experiences

  • Published:
Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

This review of children's testimony focuses on research related to memory for past experiences. The aspects of the memory system that are involved in testimony are discussed and the development of autobiographical memory is examined. Relevant research findings are summarized in the context of an information-processing model of memory and the implications of this work for clinical practice are outlined. We conclude that (1) under certain conditions, even very young children can remember and report past experiences with some accuracy over very long periods of time; (2) substantial and significant developmental differences have been demonstrated in children's abilities to provide eyewitness testimony; (3) children can be influenced in a variety of ways to provide complete and elaborated reports of events that never occurred; and (4) even experts cannot always tell the difference between true and false reports.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

REFERENCES

  • Aldridge, J., &Cameron, S. (1999). Interviewing child witnesses: Questioning techniques and the role of training. Applied Developmental Science, 3, 136-147.

    Google Scholar 

  • Alpert, J. L.,Brown, L. S., &Courtois, C. A. (1998). Symptomatic clients and memories of childhood abuse: What the trauma and child sexual abuse literature tells us. Psychology, Public Policy, and Law, 4, 941-995.

    Google Scholar 

  • American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry. (1997). Practice parameters for the forensic evaluation of children and adolescents who may have been physically or sexually abused. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 36, 423-442.

    Google Scholar 

  • American Professional Society on the Abuse of Children. (1990). Guidelines for psychosexual evaluation of childhood sexual abuse in young children. Chicago, IL: Author.

    Google Scholar 

  • APA Working Group on Investigations of Memories of Childhood Abuse. (1998). Final conclusions of the American Psychological Association Working Group on Investigation of Memories of Childhood Abuse. Psychology, Public Policy, and Law, 4, 933-940.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bahrick, L.,Parker, J. F.,Fivush, R., &Levitt, M. (1998). The effects of stress on young children's memory for a natural disaster. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Applied, 4, 308-331.

    Google Scholar 

  • Baker-Ward, L.,Gordon, B. N.,Ornstein, P. A.,Larus, D. M., &Clubb, P. A. (1993). Young children's long-term retention of a pediatric examination. Child Development, 64, 1519-1533.

    Google Scholar 

  • Baker-Ward, L.,Hess, T. M., &Flanagan, D. A. (1990). The effects of involvement on children's memory for events. Cognitive Development, 5, 55-70.

    Google Scholar 

  • Baker-Ward, L.,Ornstein, P A., &Principe, G. F. (1997). Revealing the representation: Evidence from children's reports of events. In P. van den Broek,P. Bauer, &T. Borg (Eds.), Developmental spans in event comprehension and representation: Bridging fictional and actual events (pp. 79-107). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bauer, P. J. (1995). Recalling past events from infancy to early childhood. Annals of Child Development, 11, 25-71.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bauer, P. J. (1996). What do infants recall of their lives? Memory for specific events by one-to two-year-olds. American Psychologist, 51, 29-41.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bauer, P. J., Hertsgaard, L. A., & Dow, G.A. (1994). After 8 months have passed: Long-term recall of events by 1-to 2-year-old children. Memory, 2, 353-382.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bauer, P. J.,Kroupina, M. G.,Schwade, J. A.,Dropik, P. L., &Wewerka, S. S. (1998). If memory serves, will language: Later verbal accessibility of early memories. Development and Psychopathology, 10, 655-680.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bjorklund, D. F. (1985). The role of conceptual knowledge in the development of organization in children's memory. In C. J. Brainerd &M. Pressley (Eds.), Basic processes in memory development (pp. 103-142). New York: Springer-Verlag.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bjorklund, D. F. (1987). How age changes in knowledge contribute to the development of children's memory: An interpretative review. Developmental Review, 7, 93-130.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bjorklund, D. F. (2000). Children's thinking: Developmental function and individual differences (3rd ed.). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bowers, G. H., &Sivers, H. (1998). Cognitive impact of traumatic events. Development and Psychopathology, 4, 625-654.

    Google Scholar 

  • Brainerd, C. J.,Kingman, J., &Howe, M. L. (1985). On the development of forgetting. Child Development, 56, 1103-1119.

    Google Scholar 

  • Brainerd, C. J., &Mojardin, A. H. (1998). Children's and adults' spontaneous false memories: Long-term persistence and meretesting effects. Child Development, 69, 1361-1377.

    Google Scholar 

  • Brainerd, C. J., &Reyna, V. F. (1990). Gist is the grist: Fuzzy trace theory and the new intuitionism. Developmental Review, 10, 3-47.

    Google Scholar 

  • Brainerd, C. J., &Reyna, V. F. (1996). Mere memory testing creates false memories in children. Developmental Psychology, 32, 467-478.

    Google Scholar 

  • Brainerd, C. J.,Reyna, V. F., &Brandse, E. (1995). Are children's false memories more persistent than their true memories? Psychological Science, 6, 359-364.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bremner, J. D.,Shobe, K. K., &Kihlstrom, J. F. (2000). False memories in women with self-reported childhood sexual abuse: An empirical study. Psychological Science, 11, 333-337.

    Google Scholar 

  • Brown, R., &Kulilk, J. (1977). Flashbulb memories. Cognition, 5, 73-99.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bruck, M., &Ceci, S. J. (1999). The suggestibility of children's memory. Annual Review of Psychology, 50, 419-439.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bruck, M.,Ceci, S. J.,Francoeur, E., &Barr, R. J. (1995). “I hardly cried when I got my shot!”: Influencing children's reports of a pediatric examination involving genital touching. Child Development, 66, 193-208.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bruck, M.,Ceci, S. J., &Hembrooke, H. (1997). Children's reports of pleasant and unpleasant events. In D. Read andS. Lindsay (Eds.), Recollections of trauma: Scientific research and clinical practice (pp. 199-219). New York: Plenum Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bruck, M.,Ceci, S. J., &Hembrooke, H. (1998). Reliability and credibility of young children's reports: From research to policy to practice. American Psychologist, 53, 136-151.

    Google Scholar 

  • Campbell, B. A., &Jaynes, J. (1966). Reinstatement. Psychological Review, 73, 478-480.

    Google Scholar 

  • Candel, I.,Merckelbach, H., &Muris, P. (2000). Measuring interrogative suggestibility in children: Reliability and validity of the Bonn Test of Statement Suggestibility. Psychology, Crime and Law, 6, 61-70.

    Google Scholar 

  • Carter, C. A.,Bottoms, B. L., &Levine, M. (1996). Linguistic and socioemotional influences on the accuracy of children's reports. Law and Human Behavior, 20, 335-358.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ceci, S. J., &Bruck, M. (1993). Suggestiblity of the child witness: A historical review and synthesis. Psychological Bulletin, 113, 403-439.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ceci, S., &Bruck, M. (1995). Jeopardy in the courtroom: A scientific analysis of children's testimony. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ceci, S. J., &Hembrooke, H. (1998). Expert witnesses in child abuse cases: What can and should be said in court. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ceci, S. J., &Huffman, M. L. C. (1997). How suggestibile are preschool children? Cognitive and social factors. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 36, 948-956.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ceci, S. J.,Huffman, M. L. C.,Smith, E., &Loftus, E. W. (1994). Repeatedly thinking about non-events: Source misattributions among preschoolers. Conscious Cognition, 3, 388-407.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ceci, S. J.,Loftus, E. F.,Leichtman, M.D., &Bruck, M. (1994). The possible role of source misattributions in the creation of false beliefs among preschoolers. International Journal of Clinical Experimental Hypnosis, 42, 304-320.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ceci, S. J.,Ross, D. F., &Toglia, M. P. (1987). Age differences in suggestibility: Narrowing the uncertainties. In S. J. Ceci,M. P. Toglia, & D. F. Ross (Eds.), Children's eyewitness testimony (pp. 79-91). New York: Springer-Verlag.

    Google Scholar 

  • Chi, M. T. H., &Ceci, S. J. (1987). Content knowledge: Its role, representation, and restructuring in memory development. In H. W. Reese (Ed.), Advances in child development and behavior (Vol. 20, pp. 91-142). New York: Academic Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cicchetti, D., &Toth, S. (Eds.). (1998). Risk, trauma, and memory. [Special issue]. Development and Psychopathology, 10(4).

  • Clarke-Stewart, A.,Thompson, W. C., &Lepore, S. (1989, April). Manipulating children's interpretations through interrogation. In G. S. Goodman (Chair), Can children provide accurate eyewitness reports? Symposium conducted at the biennial meeting of the Society for Research in Child Development, Kansas City, MO.

  • Clubb, P. A., &Ornstein, P. A. (1992, April). Visiting the doctor: Children's differential retention of individual components of the physical examination. In D. Bjorklund &P. A. Ornstein (Chairs), Children's memory for real-world events: Implications for testimony. A symposium presented at the Conference on Human Development, Atlanta, GA.

  • DeCasper, A. J., &Spence, M. J. (1986). Prenatal maternal speech influences newborns' perception of speech sounds. Infant Behavior and Development, 9, 133-150.

    Google Scholar 

  • Eisen, M. L., &Goodman, G. S. (1998). Trauma, memory, and suggestibility in children. Development and Psychopathology, 10, 717-738.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fisher, R. P. &Geiselman, R. E. (1992). Memory-enhancing techniques for investigative interviewing: The Cognitive Interview. Springfield, IL: Thomas.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fisher, R. P.,Geiselman, R. E.,Raymond, D. S.,Jurkevich, L. M., &Warhaftig, M. L. (1987). Enhancing enhanced eyewitness memory: Refining the cognitive interview. Journal of Police Science and Administration, 15, 291-297.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fisher, R. P., &McCauley, M. R. (1995). Improving eyewitness testimony with the Cognitive Interview. In M. S. Zaragoza,J. R. Graham,G. C. N. Hall,R. Hirschman,Y. S. Ben-Porath (Eds.), Memory and testimony in the child witness (pp. 141-159). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fivush, R. (1997). Event memory in childhood. In N. Cowan (Ed.), The development of memory in childhood (pp. 139-162). Sussex: Psychology Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fivush, R. (1998). Children's recollections of traumatic and nontraumatic events. Development and Psychopathology, 10, 699-716.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fivush, R. (2000). Accuracy, authority, and voice. In P. H. Miller &E. K. Scholnick (Eds.), Toward a feminist developmental psychology (pp. 85-105). New York: Routledge.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fivush, R.,Gray, J., &Fromhoff, F. A. (1987). Two-year-olds talk about the past. Cognitive Development, 2, 393-409.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fivush, R., &Hamond, N. R. (1989). Time and again: Effects of repetition and retention interval on 2-year-olds' event recall. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 47, 259-273.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fivush, R., &Hammond, N. R. (1990). Autobiographical memory across the preschool years: Toward reconceptualizing childhood amnesia. In R. Fivush &J. A. Hudson (Eds.), Knowing and remembering in young children (pp. 223-248). New York: Cambridge University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fivush, R., &Shukat, J. R. (1995). Content, consistency, and coherence of early autobiographical recall. In M. S. Zaragoza,J. R. Graham,G. C. N. Hall,R. Hirschman,Y. S. Ben-Porath (Eds.), Memory and testimony in the child witness (pp. 5-23). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.

    Google Scholar 

  • Foley, M. A., &Johnson, M. K. (1985). Confusions between memories for performed and imagined actions. A developmental comparison. Child Development, 56, 1145-1155.

    Google Scholar 

  • Foley, M. A.,Johnson, M. K., &Raye, C. L. (1983). Age-related changes in confusion between memories for thoughts and memories for speech. Child Development, 54, 51-60.

    Google Scholar 

  • Foley, M. A., &Ratner, H.H. (1998). Distinguishing between memories for thoughts and deeds: The role of prospective processing in children's source monitoring. British Journal of Developmental Psychology, 16, 465-484.

    Google Scholar 

  • Garven, S.,Wood, J. M.,Malpass, R. S., &Shaw, J. S., III. (1998). More than suggestion: The effect of interviewing techniques from the McMartin Preschool case. Journal of Applied Psychology, 83, 347-359.

    Google Scholar 

  • Geddie, L.,Fradin, S., &Beer, J. (2000). Child characteristics which impact accuracy of recall and suggestibility in preschoolers: Is age the best predictor? Child Abuse and Neglect, 24, 223-235.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gee, S.,Gregory, M., &Pipe, M. E. (1999). “What colour is your pet dinosaur?” The impact of pre-interview training and question type of children's answers. Legal and Criminological Psychology, 4, 111-128.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gold, P. E. (1987). Sweet memories. American Psychologist, 75, 151-155.

    Google Scholar 

  • Goldhaber, D. E. (2000). Theories of human development: Integrative perspectives. Mountain View, CA: Mayfield.

    Google Scholar 

  • Goodman, G. S.,Bottoms, B. L.,Schwartz-Kenney, G., &Rudy, L. (1991). Children's memory for a stressful event: Improving children's reports. Journal of Narrative and Life History, 1, 69-99.

    Google Scholar 

  • Goodman, G. S.,Hirschman, J., &Rudy, L. (1987, April). Children's testimony: Research and policy implications. In S. Ceci (Chair), Children as witnesses: Research and social policy implications. Symposium conducted at the meeting of the Society for Research in Child Development, Baltimore, MD.

  • Goodman, G. S., & Quas, J. A. (1997). Trauma and memory: Individual differences in children's recounting of a stressful experience. In N. Stein,P. A. Ornstein,C. J. B. Tversky, &C. J. Brainerd (Eds.), Memory for everyday and emotional events (pp. 267-294). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

    Google Scholar 

  • Goodman, G. S.,Quas, J. A.,Batterman-Faunce, J. M.,Riddlesberger, M. M., &Kuhn, J. (1997). Children's reactions to and memory for a stressful event: Influences of age, anatomical dolls, knowledge and parental attachment. Applied Developmental Science, 1, 54-75.

    Google Scholar 

  • Goodman, G. S.,Rudy, L.,Bottoms, B. L., &Aman, C. (1990). Children's concerns and memory: Issues of ecological validity in the study of children's eyewitness testimony. In R. Fivush &J. A. Hudson (Eds.), Knowing and remembering in young children (pp. 249-284). New York: Cambridge University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gordon, B.N., &Follmer, A. (1994). Developmental issues in judging the credibility of children's testimony. Journal of Clinical Child Psychology, 23, 283-294.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gordon, B. N.,Ornstein, P. A.,Nida, R. E.,Follmer, A.,Crenshaw, M. C., &Albert, G. (1993). Does the use of dolls facilitate children's memory of visits to the doctor? Applied Cognitive Psychology, 7, 1-16.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gordon, B. N.,Schroeder, C. S.,Ornstein, P. A., &Baker-Ward, L. (1995). Clinical implications of research on memory development. In T. Ney (Ed.), True and false allegations of child sexual abuse: Assessment and case management (pp. 99-124). New York: Brunner/Mazel.

    Google Scholar 

  • Greenhoot, A. F. (2000). Remembering and understanding: The effects of changes in underlying knowledge on children's recollections. Child Development, 71, 1309-1328.

    Google Scholar 

  • Greenhoot, A. F., Ornstein, P. A.,Gordon, B.N., &Baker-Ward, L. (1999). Acting out the details of a pediatric check-up: The impact of interview condition and behavioral style on children's memory reports. Child Development, 70, 363-380.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gudjonsson, G. H. (1989). Compliance in an interrogative situation: A new scale. Personality and Individual Differences, 10, 535-540.

    Google Scholar 

  • Haden, C. A., Ornstein, P. A., Eckerman, C. O., & Didow, S. M. (in press). Mother-child conversational interactions as events unfold: Linkages to subsequent remembering. Child Development.

  • Heim, C.,Newport, J.,Heit, S.,Graham, Y. P.,Wilcox, M.,Bonsall, R.,Miller, A. H., &Nemeroff, C. B. (2000). Pituitary-adrenal and autonomic responses to stress in women after sexual and physical abuse in childhood. Journal of the American Medical Association, 284, 592-597.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hertsgaard, L.,Gunnar, M.,Erickson, M. R., &Nachmias, M. (1995). Adrenocortical responses to the strange situation in infants with disorganized/disoriented attachment relationships. Child Development, 66, 110-1106.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hovde, A. M., &Strapp, C. M. (1999, April). The impact of interviewer eye level on amount and accuracy of children's recall. Poster presented at the biennial meeting of the Society for Research in Child Development, Albuquerque, NM.

  • Howard, A. N.,Osborne, H. L., &Baker-Ward, L. (1997, April). Childhood cancer survivors' memory of their treatment after long delays. Poster presented at the biennial meeting of the Society for Research in Child Development, Washington, DC.

  • Howe, M. L. (1998). Individual differences in factors that modulate storage and retrieval of traumatic memories. Development and Psychopathology, 10, 681-698.

    Google Scholar 

  • Howe, M. L. (2000). The fate of early memories: Developmental science and the retention of childhood experiences. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.

    Google Scholar 

  • Howe, M. L., &O'sullivan, J. T. (1997). What children's memories tell us about recalling our childhoods:Areview of storage and retrieval processes in the development of long-term retention. Developmental Review, 17, 148-204.

    Google Scholar 

  • Howie, P. M., &Dowd, H. J. (1996). Self-esteem and the perceived obligation to respond: Effects on children's testimony. Legal and Crinimological Psychology, 1, 197-209.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hudson, J. A. (1990). Constructive processing in children's event memory. Developmental Psychology, 26, 180-187.

    Google Scholar 

  • Huffman, M. L.,Crossman, A. M., &Ceci, S. J. (1997). “Are false memories permanent?” An investigation of the long-term effects of source misattributions. Consciousness and Cognition: An International Journal, 6, 482-490.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jackson, S., &Crockenberg, S. (1998). A comparison of suggestiblity in 4-year-old girls in response to parental or stranger misinformation. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 19, 527-542.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kail, R. V. (1989). The development of memory in children (2nd ed.). New York: Freeman.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lamb, M. E. (1994). The investigation of child sexual abuse: An interdisciplinary consensus statement. Expert Evidence, 2, 151-156.

    Google Scholar 

  • Leichtman, M. D., &Ceci, S. J. (1995). The effects of stereotypes and suggestions on preschoolers'reports. Developmental Psychology, 31, 568-578.

    Google Scholar 

  • Levine L. J.,Stein N. L., &Liwag, M.D. (1999). Remembering children's emotions: Sources of concordant and discordant counts between parents and children. Developmental Psychology, 35, 790-801.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lindsay, D. S., &Read, J. D. (1994). Psychotherapy and memories of childhood sexual abuse: A cognitive perspective. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 8, 281-338.

    Google Scholar 

  • Loftus, E. F. (1979). Eyewitness testimony. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Loftus, E. F. (1993). The reality of repressed memories. American Psychologist, 48, 518-537.

    Google Scholar 

  • Loftus, E. F., &Palmer, J. C. (1974). Reconstruction of automobile destruction: An example of the interaction between language and memory. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 13, 585-589.

    Google Scholar 

  • Loftus, E. F., &Pickrell, J. (1995). The formation of false memories. Psychiatric Annals, 25, 720-725.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mandler, J. M. (1990). Recall and its verbal expression. In R. Fivush &J. A. Hudson (Eds.), Knowing and remembering in young children (pp. 317-330). New York: Cambridge University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Marche, T. A. (1997, April). Timing of misleading information in-fluences preschoolers' susceptibility to misinformation effect. Poster presented at the Biennial Meeting of the Society for Research in Child Development, Washington, DC.

  • Marche, T. A. (1999). Memory strength affects reporting of misinformation. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 73, 45-71.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mazzoni, G. (1998). Memory suggestibility and metacognition in child eyewitness testimony: The roles of source monitoring and self-efficacy. European Journal of Psychology of Education, 13, 43-60.

    Google Scholar 

  • McCauley, M. R., &Fisher, R. P. (1995). Facilitating children's eyewitness recall with the revised Cognitive Interview. Journal of Applied Psychology, 80, 510-516.

    Google Scholar 

  • McCloskey, M.,Wible, C. G., &Cohen, N. J. (1988). Is there a special flashbulb-memory mechanism? Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 117, 171-181.

    Google Scholar 

  • Meltzoff, A. N. (1995). What infant memory tells us about infantile amnesia: Long-term recall and deferred imitation. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 59, 497-515.

    Google Scholar 

  • Merritt, K. A.,Ornstein, P. A., &Spicker, B. (1994). Children's memory for a salient medical procedure: Implications for testimony. Pediatrics, 94, 17-23.

    Google Scholar 

  • Michel, M. K. (2001). The effects of interviewing method on children's recall. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Department of Psychology, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill.

  • Michel, M. K.,Gordon, B. N.,Ornstein, P. A., &Simpson, M. A. (2000). The abilities of children with mental retardation to remember personal experiences: Implications for testimony. Journal of Clinical Child Psychology, 29, 453-463.

    Google Scholar 

  • Milne, R., &Bull, R. (1996). Interviewing children with mild learning disability with the Cognitive Interview. Issues in Criminological and Legal Psychology, 26, 44-51.

    Google Scholar 

  • Muir-Broaddus, J.,King, T.,Downey, D., &Petersen, M. (1998). Conservation as a predictor of individual differences in children's susceptibility to leading questions. Psychonomic Bulletin and Review, 5, 454-458.

    Google Scholar 

  • Myles-Worsley, M.,Cromer, C.C., &Dodd, D. H. (1986). Children's preschool script reconstruction: Reliance on general knowledge as memory fades. Developmental Psychology, 22, 22-30.

    Google Scholar 

  • Nadel, L., &Jacobs, W. J. (1998). Traumatic memory is special. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 7, 154-157.

    Google Scholar 

  • Nelson, C. A., &Carver, L. J. (1998). The effects of stress and trauma on brain and memory: A view from developmental cognitive neuroscience. Development and Psychopathology, 10, 793-809.

    Google Scholar 

  • Nelson, K. (1986). Event knowledge: Structure and function in development. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

    Google Scholar 

  • Nelson, K. (1993). The psychological and social origins of autobiographical memory. Psychological Science, 4, 1-8.

    Google Scholar 

  • Orbach, Y.,Hershkowitz, I.,Lamb, M. E.,Sternberg, K. J.,Esplin, P.W., &Horowitz, D. (2000). Assessing the value of structured protocols for forensic interviews of alleged abuse victims. Child Abuse and Neglect, 24, 733-752.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ornstein, P. A. (1995). Children's long-term retention of salient personal experiences. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 8, 581-605.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ornstein, P. A.,Baker-Ward, L.,Gordon, B. N., &Merritt, K. A. (1997). Children's memory for medical experiences. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 11, S87-S104.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ornstein, P. A.,Ceci, S. J., &Loftus, E. F. (1998). Adult recollections of childhood abuse: Cognitive and developmental perspectives. Psychology, Public Policy, and Law, 4, 1025-1051.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ornstein, P. A.,Gordon,B.N., &Baker-Ward, L. (1992). Children's memory for salient events: Implications for testimony. In M. L. Howe,C. J. Brainerd, &V. F. Reyna (Eds.), Development of long-term retention (pp. 135-158). New York: Springer-Verlag.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ornstein, P. A.,Gordon, B. N., &Larus, D. M. (1992). Children's memory for a personally experienced event:Implications for testimony. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 6, 49-60.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ornstein, P. A.,Larus, D. M., &Clubb, P. A. (1991). Understanding children's testimony: Implications of research on the development of memory. In R. Vasta (Ed.), Annals of child development (Vol. 8, pp. 145-176). London: Jessica Kingsley Publishers.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ornstein, P. A.,Merritt, K. A.,Baker-Ward, L.,Gordon, B. N.,Furtado, E., &Principe, G. (1998). Children's knowledge, expectation, and long-term retention. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 12, 387-405.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ornstein, P. A., &Naus, M. J. (1985). Effects of the knowledge base on children's memory strategies. In H. W. Reese (Ed.), Advances in child development and behavior (Vol. 19, pp. 113-148). Orlando, FL: Academic Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ornstein, P. A.,Shapiro, L. R.,Clubb, P. A.,Follmer, A., &Baker-Ward, L. (1997). The influence of prior knowledge on children's memory for salient medical expeirences. In N. Stein,P. A. Ornstein,C. J. Brainerd, & B. Tversky (Eds.), Memory for everyday and emotional events (pp. 83-111). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

    Google Scholar 

  • Peters, D. P. (1991). The influence of stress and arousal on the child witness. In J. Doris (Ed.), The suggestibility of children recollections (pp. 60-76). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.

    Google Scholar 

  • Peterson, C. (1999). Children's memory for medical emergencies: 2 years later. Developmental Psychology, 35, 1493-1506.

    Google Scholar 

  • Peterson, C., &Bell, M. (1996). Children's memory for traumatic injury. Child Development, 67, 3045-3070.

    Google Scholar 

  • Peterson, C., &Rideout, R. (1998). Memory for medical emergencies experienced by 1-and 2-year-olds. Developmental Psychology, 34, 1059-1072.

    Google Scholar 

  • Pezdek, K., &Roe, C. (1995). The effect of memory trace strength on suggestibility. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 60, 116-128.

    Google Scholar 

  • Pezdek, K., & Taylor, J. (in press). Memory for traumatic events by children and adults. In M. L. Eisen, G. S. Goodman, & J. A. Quas (Eds.), Memory and suggestibility in the forensic interview. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum and Associates.

  • Pipe, M. E.,Dean, J.,Canning, J., &Murachver, T. (1996, July). Narrating events and telling stories. Paper presented at the second International Conference on Memory, Albano, Italy.

  • Pollak, S. D.,Cicchetti, D., &Klorman, R. (1998). Stress, memory, and emotion: Developmental considerations from the study of child maltreatment. Development and Psychopathology, 10, 811-828.

    Google Scholar 

  • Pollak, S. D.,Cicchetti, D.,Klorman, R., &Brumaghim, J. T. (1997). Cognitive brain event-related potentials and emotionprocessing in maltreated children. Child Development, 68, 773-787.

    Google Scholar 

  • Poole, D. A., &Lamb, M. E. (1998). Investigative interviews of children: A guide for helping professionals. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.

    Google Scholar 

  • Poole, D. A., &Lindsay, D. S. (1996, June). Effects of parental suggestions, interviewing techniques, and age on young children's event reports. Paper presented at the NATO Advanced Study Institute, Recollections ofTrauma: Scientific research and clinical practice, Port de Bourgenay, France.

  • Poole, D. A., &White, L. T. (1993). Two years later: Effects of question repetition and retention interval on the eyewitness testimony of children and adults. Developmental Psychology, 29, 844-853.

    Google Scholar 

  • Poole, D. A., &White, L.T. (1995). Tellmeagain and again: Stability and change in the repeated testimonies of children and adults. In M. S. Zaragoza,J. R. Graham,G. C. N. Hall,R. Hirschman,Y. S. Ben-Porath (Eds.), Memory and testimony in the child witness (pp. 24-43). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.

    Google Scholar 

  • Pope, K. S., &Brown, L. S. (1996). Recovered memories of abuse: Assessment, therapy, forsenics. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.

    Google Scholar 

  • Powell, M. B.,Roberts, K. P.,Ceci, S. J., &Hembrooke, H. (1999). The effects of repeated experience on children's suggestibility. Developmental Psychology, 35, 1462-1477.

    Google Scholar 

  • Powell, M. B., &Thomson, D. M. (1996). Children's recall of an occurrence of a repeated event: Effects of age, retention interval, and question type. Child Development, 67, 1988-2004.

    Google Scholar 

  • Priestley, G.,Roberts, S., &Pipe, M. E. (1999). Returning to the scene: Reminders and context reinstatement enhance children's recall. Developmental Psychology, 35, 1006-1014.

    Google Scholar 

  • Principe, G. F.,Ornstein, P. A.,Baker-ward, L., &Gordon, B. N. (2000). The effects of intervening experiences on children's memory for a physical examination. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 14, 59-80.

    Google Scholar 

  • Putnam, F. (1997). Dissociation in children and adolescents. A developmental perspective. NY: Guilford.

    Google Scholar 

  • Quas, J. A.,Qin, J.,Schaaf, J., &Goodman, G. S. (1997). Individual differences in children's and adults' suggestibility and false event memory. Learning and Individual Differences, 9, 359-390.

    Google Scholar 

  • Reyna, V. F., &Brainerd, C. J. (1995). Fuzzy-trace theory: An interim synthesis. Learning and Individual Differences, 7, 1-75.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ricci, C. M., &Beal, C. R. (1998). Child witnesses: Effect of event knowledge on memory and suggestibility. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 19, 305-317.

    Google Scholar 

  • Richardson, G., &Kelly, T. P. (1995). The relationship between intelligence, memory and interrogative suggestibility in young offenders. Psychology, Crime and Law, 1, 283-290.

    Google Scholar 

  • Roberts, K. P., &Lamb, M. E. (1999). Children's responses when interviewers distort details during investigative interviews. Legal and Criminological Psychology, 4, 23-31.

    Google Scholar 

  • Roberts, K. P.,Lamb, M. E.,Sternberg, K. J.,Beresford, J.,Domenici-Lake, P. L., &Heiges, K. (1997, April). The effect of a delay on the incorporation of postevent information into children's eyewitness memory. Paper presented at the biennial meeting of the Society for Research in Child Development, Washington, DC.

  • Robinson, J., &Briggs, P. (1997). Age trends and eye-witness suggestibility and compliance. Psychology, Crime and Law, 3, 187-202.

    Google Scholar 

  • Roediger, H. L., III, &Bergman, E. T. (1998). The controversy over recovered memories. Psychology, Public Policy, and Law, 4, 1091-1109.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ross, M. (1989). The relation of implicit theories to the construction of personal histories. Psychological Review, 96, 341-357.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rovee-Collier, C., &Shyi, G. (1992). A functional and cognitive analysis of infant long-term retention. In M. L. Howe,C. J. Brainerd, &V. F. Reyna (Eds.), Development of long-term retention (pp. 3-55). New York: Springer-Verlag.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rudy, L., &Goodman, G. S. (1991). Effects of participation on children's reports: Implications for children's testimony. Developmental Psychology, 27, 527-538.

    Google Scholar 

  • Salmon, K., &Pipe, M. E. (1997). Providing props to facilitate young children's event recall: The impact of a one year delay. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 65, 261-292.

    Google Scholar 

  • Saywitz, K. J. (1995). Improving children's testimony: The question, the answer, and the environment. In M. S. Zaragoza,J. R. Graham, G. C. N. Hall,R. Hirschman,Y. S. Ben-Porath (Eds.), Memory and testimony in the child witness (pp. 113-140). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.

    Google Scholar 

  • Saywitz, K. J. (in press). Developmental underpinnings. In H. Westcott, G. Davies, & R. Bull (Eds.), Children's testimony in context. New York:Wiley.

  • Saywitz, K. J., Goodman, G. S., Nicholas, E., & Moan, S. (1991). Children's memories of physical examinations involving gential touch: Implications for reports of child sexual abuse. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 59, 682-691.

    Google Scholar 

  • Saywitz, K. J., & Nathanson, R. (1993). Children's testimony and their perceprions of stress in and out of the courtroom. Child Abuse and Neglect, 17, 613-622.

    Google Scholar 

  • Saywitz, K. J., Nathanson, R., & Snyder, L. (1993). Credibility of child witnesses: The role of communicative competence. Topics in Language Disorders, 13, 59-78.

    Google Scholar 

  • Saywitz, K. J., & Snyder, L. (1993). Improving children's testimony with preparation. In G. Goodman & B. Bottoms (Eds.), Child victims, child witnesses: Understanding and improving testimony (pp. 117-146). New York: Guilford Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schacter, D.L. (1992). Understanding implicit memory:Acognitive neuroscience approach. American Psychologist, 47, 559-569.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schneider, W., & Bjorklund, D. F. (1998). Memory. In W. Damon (Series Ed.) & D. Kuhn & R. S. Siegler (Vol. Eds.), Handbook of child psychology: Vol. 2. Cognition, perception, and language (pp. 467-521). New York: Wiley.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schneider, W., & Pressley, M. (1997). Memory development between 2 and 20 (2nd ed.). New York: Springer-Verlag.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schwarzmueller, A., Boyle, P., & Fivush, R. (1996, March). Autobiographical memory from age 3 through 8. Poster presented at the Conference on Human Development, Birmingham, AL.

  • Shiffrin, R. M., & Atkinson, R.C. (1969). Storage and retrieval processes in long-term memory. Psychological Review, 76, 179-193.

    Google Scholar 

  • Simpson, C., & Guttentag, R. (1996, March). Suggestibility of children's remembering: Effects of interviewer credibility. Poster presented at the Conference on Human Development, Birmingham, AL.

  • Steward, M. S., & Steward, D. S. (with L. Farquhar, J.E.B. Myers, M. Reinhart, J. Welker, N. Joye, J. Driskill, & J. Morgan) (1996). Interviewing young children about body touch and handling. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development, 61(4/5,Serial No. 248).

  • Templeton, L. M., & Hunt, V. H. (1997, April). The effects of misleading information and level or authority of interviewer on children's eyewitness memory. Poster presented at the biennial meeting of the Society for Research in Child Development, Washington, DC.

  • Templeton, L. M., & Wilcox, S. A. (2000). A tale of two representations: The misinformation effect and children's developing theory of mind. Child Development, 71, 402-416.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tessler, M., & Nelson, K. (1994). Making memories: The influence of joint encoding on later recall by young children. Consciousness and Cognition, 3, 307-326.

    Google Scholar 

  • Toglia, M. P., & Ross, D. F. (1991, April). Children's suggestibility: The role of biaser credibility. Paper presented at the biennial meeting of the Society for Research in Child Development, Seattle,WA.

  • Tulving, E., & Thomson, D. M. (1973). Encoding specificity and retrieval processes in episodic memory. Psychological Review, 80, 352-373.

    Google Scholar 

  • Vrij, A., & Bush, N. (2000). Differences in suggestibility between 5-6 and 10-11 year olds: The relationship with self confidence. Psychology, Crime and Law, 6, 127-138.

    Google Scholar 

  • Walker, A. G., & Warren, A. R. (1995). The language of the child abuse interview: Asking the questions, understanding the answers. In T. Ney (Ed.), True and false allegations of child sexual abuse: Assessment and case management (pp.153-162). New York: Brunner/Mazel.

    Google Scholar 

  • Warren, A. R., & Lane, P. (1995). Effects of timing and type of questioning on eyewitness accuracy and suggestibility. In M. S. Zaragoza, J. R. Graham, G. C. N. Hall, R. Hirschman, Y. S. Ben-Porath (Eds.), Memory and testimony in the child witness (pp.44-60). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.

    Google Scholar 

  • Warren, A. R., & Smartwood, J. (1992). Developmental issues in flashbulb memory research: Children recall the Challenger event. In E.Winograd & U. Neisser (Eds.), Affect and accuracy in recall: The problem of flashbulb memories (pp. 95-12). New York: Cambridge University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Warren, A. R., Woodall, C. E., Thomas, M., Nunno, M., Keeney, J. M., Larson, S. M., & Stadfeld, J. A. (1999). Assessing the effectiveness of a training program for interviewing child witnesses. Applied Developmental Science, 3, 128-135.

    Google Scholar 

  • Welch-Ross, M. K., Diecidue, K., & Miller, S. A. (1997). Young children's understanding of conflicting mental representation predicts suggestibility. Developmental Psychology, 33, 43-53.

    Google Scholar 

  • White, T. L., Leichtman, M. D., & Ceci, S. J. (1997). The good, the bad, and the ugly: Accuracy, inaccuracy, and elaboration in preschoolers' reports about a past event. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 11, S37-S54.

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Psychology, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina

    Betty N. Gordon & Peter A. Ornstein

  2. Department of Psychology, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, North Carolina

    Lynne Baker-Ward

Authors
  1. Betty N. Gordon
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Lynne Baker-Ward
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Peter A. Ornstein
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Gordon, B.N., Baker-Ward, L. & Ornstein, P.A. Children's Testimony: A Review of Research on Memory for Past Experiences. Clin Child Fam Psychol Rev 4, 157–181 (2001). https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1011333231621

Download citation

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1011333231621

Search

Navigation