¹ Good contributions on this issue are usually more nuanced, but still come with diverging emphases along these lines. See, e.g., Joel P. Trachtman, The Domain of WTO Dispute Resolution, 40 Harvard International Law Journal 333 (1999) (portraying judicial lawmaking as a matter of fact); Armin von Bogdandy, Law and Politics in the WTO -Strategies to Cope with a Deficient Relationship, 5 Max Planck Yearbook of United Nations Law 609 (2001) (canvassing different understandings and looking above all at attempts for dealing with legitimatory implications); Lorand Bartels, The Separation of Powers in the WTO: How to Avoid Judicial Activism?, 53 International and Comparative Law Quarterly 861 (2004); Steinberg, Richard H., Judicial Lawmaking at the WTO: Discursive, Constitutional, and Political Constraints, 98 AJIL 247 (2004); Howse, Robert, Moving the WTO Forward - One Case at a Time, 42 Cornell International Law Journal 223 (2009) (pointing to a number of instances where adjudicators advanced the law in view of political deadlock).Google Scholar

² Bogdandy, Armin von & Venzke, Ingo, Beyond Dispute: International Judicial Institutions as Lawmakers, in this issue. The project follows a broad understanding of “court” that includes judicial institutions in the GATT/WTO. There are formal differences such as that they only make recommendations and do not decide cases. But by now and in view of the real-life practices of these institutions there should be little squabble with this denomination. Cf. Claus-Dieter Ehlermann, Six Years on the Bench of the “World Trade Court” – Some Personal Experiences as Member of the Appellate Body of the World Trade Organization, 36 Journal of World Trade 605 (2002).Google Scholar

³ The test was one akin to something like “legitimate expectations”, known from contract law. See Working Party Report, The Australian Subsidy on Ammonium Sulphate, GATT/CP.4/39, 3 April 1950, BISD II/188; GATT Panel Report, Treatment by Germany of Imports of Sardines, G/26, 31 October 1952, BISD 1S/53.Google Scholar

⁴ GATT Panel Report, Uruguayan Recourse to Article XXIII, L/1923, 16 November 1962, BISD 11S/95. Cf. with illuminating detail Arwel Davies, The DSU Artilce 3.8 Presumption That an Infringement Constitutes a Prima Facie Case of Nullification or Impairment: When Does it Operate and Why?, 13 Journal of International Economic Law 181 (2010).Google Scholar

⁵ Jackson, John H., Sovereignty, the WTO and Changing Fundamentals of International Law 143 (2006). See GATT Panel Report, United States - Taxes on Petroleum and Certain Imported Substances, L/6175, 17 June 1987, BISD 34S/136.Google Scholar

⁶ Jackson (note 5), 82.Google Scholar

⁷ With a fresh look on the working of precedents, see Marc Jacob, Precedents: Lawmaking Through International Adjudication, in this issue.Google Scholar

⁸ Hudec, Robert, Enforcing International Trade Law. The Evolution of the Modern GATT Legal System 4-5 (1993). It should be noted, however, that the GATT of 1947 was modified with the Final Act of the Uruguay Round in 1994.Google Scholar

⁹ Hudec, Robert, The GATT Legal System: A Diplomat's Jurisprudence, 4 Journal of World Trade 615 (1970).Google Scholar

¹⁰ Benedek, Wolfgang, Die Rechtsordnung des GATT aus völkerrechtlicher Sicht 232-236 (1990); Hudec (note 8), 9.Google Scholar

¹¹ Weiler, Joseph H. H., The Rule of Lawyers and the Ethos of Diplomats. Reflections on the Internal and External Legitimacy of WTO Dispute Settlement, 35 Journal of World Trade 191 (2001); Howse, Robert, From Politics to Technocracy - and Back Again: The Fate of the Multilateral Trading Regime, 96 AJIL 94 (2002).Google Scholar

¹² Nettesheim, Martin, Von der Verhandlungsdiplomatie zur internationalen Wirtschaftsordnung: Zur Entwicklung des internationalen Wirtschaftsrechts, 19 Jahrbuch für Neue Politische Ökonomie 48, 54 (2000).Google Scholar

¹³ On the last point, see Joseph H. H. Weiler, Law, Culture, and Values in the WTO - Gazing into the Crystal Ball, in: The Oxford Handbook of International Trade Law, 749, 758 (Daniel L. Bethlehem, Donald RcRae, Rodney Neufeld & Isabelle Van Damme eds, 2009) (noting that “the material and conceptual contours of the discipline of national treatment not only remain contested but are, par excellence, the creature of legal discourse”).Google Scholar

¹⁴ I have deliberately left aside the considerable jurisprudence and commentary on the well-known intricacies in determining “likeness”. On the stages of legal analysis at which a policy's aim may come into consideration, see Jan Wouters & Bart De Meester, The World Trade Organization 52-54 (2007); Weiler (note 13).Google Scholar

¹⁵ Ruggie, John G., International Regimes, Transactions, and Change: Embedded Liberalism in the Postwar Economic Order, 36 International Organization 379 (1982). See also his seminal International Responses to Technology: Concepts and Trends, 29 International Organization 557 (1975). Cf. Weiler (note 11), 194-195; Howse (note 11), 99.Google Scholar

¹⁶ Howse (note 11), 99.Google Scholar

¹⁷ Hudec (note 8); Daniel Bodansky & Jessica C. Lawrence, Trade and Environment, in: The Oxford Handbook of International Trade Law, 505, 508 (Daniel L. Bethlehem, Donald RcRae, Rodney Neufeld & Isabelle Van Damme eds, 2009).Google Scholar

¹⁸ GATT Panel Report, United States - Prohibition of Imports of Tuna and Tuna Products from Canada, L/5198, 22 February 1982, BISD 29S/91.Google Scholar

¹⁹ Id., para. 2.1.Google Scholar

²⁰ Id., para. 4.15.Google Scholar

²¹ Id., para. 3.4.Google Scholar

²² Id., paras 3.15 & 4.1.Google Scholar

²³ GATT Panel Report, Canada - Measures Affecting Exports of Unprocessed Herring and Salmon, L/6268, 22 March 1988, BISD 35S/98.Google Scholar

²⁴ Id., para. 4.6.Google Scholar

²⁵ Id., para. 4.7.Google Scholar

²⁶ Cf. Trebilcock, Michael J. & Howse, Robert, The Regulation of International Trade 516-518 (2005); Charnovitz, Steve, Exploring the Environmental Exceptions in GATT Article XX, 25 Journal of World Trade 37, 50 (1991).Google Scholar

²⁷ In the Matter of Canada's Landing Requirement for Pacific Coast Salmon and Herring, Final Report, 16 October 1989, paras 7.04-7.05.Google Scholar

²⁸ Id., paras 7.04-7.11 & 7.38.Google Scholar

²⁹ Panel Report, US - Standards for Reformulated and Conventional Gasoline, WT/DS2/R, 29 January 1996, para. 6.40.Google Scholar

³⁰ Appellate Body Report, US - Standards for Reformulated and Conventional Gasoline, WT/DS2/AB/R, 29 April 1996, 16. See further infra notes 57-63 and accompanying text.Google Scholar

³¹ GATT Panel Report, United States Section 337 of the Tariff Act of 1930, L/6439, 7 November 1989, BISD 36S/345, para. 5.26.Google Scholar

³² GATT Panel Report, Thailand - Restrictions on Importation of and Internal Taxes on Cigarettes, DS10/R, 7 November 1990, BISD 37S/200, para. 75.Google Scholar

³³ GATT Panel Report, United States - Restrictions on Imports of Tuna, DS21/R, 3 September 1991, unadopted, BISD 39S/155. One issue that has to be sidestepped here, but which is of curial significance generally, is the delineation of Art. XI dealing with quantitative restrictions from Art. III concerning internal regulations.Google Scholar

³⁴ GATT Panel Report, United States - Restrictions on Imports of Tuna, DS21/R, 3 September 1991, unadopted, BISD 39S/155, para. 5.25 (italics added).Google Scholar

³⁵ Id., para. 5.27.Google Scholar

³⁶ Id., para. 5.28.Google Scholar

³⁷ Id., para. 5.31-5.33.Google Scholar

³⁸ For an overview that relates opinions to overall outlooks on the working of international law, see Benedict Kingsbury, The Tuna-Dolphin Controversy, the World Trade Organization, and the Liberal Project to Reconceptualize International Law, 5 Yearbook of International Environmental Law 1 (1994).Google Scholar

³⁹ Bogdandy, Armin von, Internationaler Handel und nationaler Umweltschutz: Eine Abgrenzung im Lichte des GATT, 3 Europäische Zeitschrift für Wirtschaftsrecht 243, 247 (1992) (noting that GATT adjudicators lack the authority for balancing competing interests).Google Scholar

⁴⁰ Decision on Trade and Environment, adopted by ministers at the meeting of the Uruguay Round Trade Negotiations Committee in Marrakesh, 14 April 1994.Google Scholar

⁴¹ The Doha Declaration invested the CTE with a renewed mandate, Doha Ministerial Declaration, WT/MIN(01)/DEC/1, 20 November 2001, paras 31-33. Little progress could be made. What the CTE indeed does, is to draft notes on Art. XX that summarize the pertinent case law and pay close lip service to the panel and Appellate Body reports. They barely add a single word of genuine assessment or direction, see, e.g., Committee on Trade and Environment, GATT/WTO Dispute Settlement Practice relating to GATT Art XX, paragraphs (b), (d) and (g), Note by the Secretariat, WT/CTE/W/203, 8 March 2002.Google Scholar

⁴² Petersmann, Ernst-Ulrich, The Transformation of the World Trading System through the 1994 Agreement Establishing the World Trade Organization, 6 EJIL 161 (1995).Google Scholar

⁴³ Von Bogdandy (note 1); Robert Howse, The Legitimacy of the World Trade Organization, in: The Legitimacy of International Organizations, 355, 374 (Jean-Marc Coicaud & Veijo Heiskane eds, 2001) (noting that real judicial power comes into being only with the changes of the new WTO Agreement and that previous treaty interpretation in dispute settlements was controlled by the GATT bureaucracy).Google Scholar

⁴⁴ Peter van den Bossche, From Afterthought to Centrepiece: The WTO Appellate Body and its Rise to Prominence in the World Trading System, in: The WTO at Ten: The Contribution of the Dispute Settlement System, 289, 292 (Giorgio Sacerdoti, Alan Yanovich & Jan Bohanes eds, 2006).Google Scholar

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⁴⁶ Dispute Settlement Body, Establishment of the Appellate Body, 19 June 1995, Decision of 10 February 1995, WT/DSB/1, paras 11-12.Google Scholar

⁴⁷ Van den Bossche (note 44). See further Hélène Ruiz Fabri, Le juge de l'OMC: Ombres et lumières d'une figure judiciaire singulière, 110 Revue Générale de Droit International Public 39 (2006).Google Scholar

⁴⁸ Van den Bossche (note 44).Google Scholar

⁴⁹ Cf. Klabbers, Jan, On Rationalism in Politics: Interpretation of Treaties and the World Trade Organization, 74 Nordic Journal of International Law 405 (2005) (offering a discussion of this qualification that borders on superb parody).Google Scholar

⁵⁰ Appellate Body Report, Chile - Taxes on Alcoholic Beverages, WT/DS87 and 110/AB/R, 13 December 1999, para. 79 (noting that “we have difficulty in envisaging circumstances in which a panel could add to the rights and obligations of a Member of the WTO if its conclusions reflected a correct interpretation and application of provisions of the covered agreements”).Google Scholar

⁵¹ Appellate Body Report, Japan - Taxes on Alcoholic Beverages, WT/DS 8, 10 and 11/AB/R, 4 October 1996, 14–15. Cf. Panel Report, United States - Use of Zeroing in Anti-Dumping Measures Involving Products from Korea, WT/DS402/R, 18 January 2011, para. 7.59.Google Scholar

⁵² Id., 15; quoting Panel Report, Japan - Taxes on Alcoholic Beverages, WT/DS8, 10 and 11/R, 11 July 1996, para. 6.10.Google Scholar

⁵³ Appellate Body Report, United States - Sunset Reviews of Anti-Dumping Measures on Oil Country Tubular Goods from Argentina, WT/DS268/AB/R, 17 December 2004.Google Scholar

⁵⁴ Appellate Body Report, United States - Final Anti-Dumping Measures on Stainless Steel from Mexico, WT/DS344/AB/R, 30 April 2008, para. 162; Appellate Body Report, United States - Continued Existence and Application of Zeroing Methodology, WT/DS350/AB/R, 4 February 2009, paras 362-365. Cf. Appellate Body Report, United States - Sunset Reviews of Anti-Dumping Measures on Oil Country Tubular Goods from Argentina, WT/DS268/AB/R, 29 November 2004, para. 188 (“following the Appellate Body's conclusions in earlier disputes is not only appropriate, but is what would be expected from panels, especially where the issues are the same”).Google Scholar

⁵⁵ Id., para. 162. The claim would be that panels fail to conduct an “objective assessment” of the matter before them as is required by Art. 11 DSU.Google Scholar

⁵⁶ Report, Panel, US - Gasoline (note 29), para. 6.28.Google Scholar

⁵⁷ Id., para. 6.40.Google Scholar

⁵⁸ Appellate Body Report, US - Gasoline (note 30), 16-17.Google Scholar

⁵⁹ Id., 19.Google Scholar

⁶⁰ Id., 22.; cf. Rüdiger Wolfrum, Article XX GATT 1994, General Exceptions [Chapeau], in: 2 Max Planck Commentaries on World Trade Law, 66 (Rüdiger Wolfrum, Peter-Tobias Stoll & Karen Kaiser eds, 2006), margin numbers 8-12.Google Scholar

⁶¹ Appellate Body Report, US - Gasoline (note 30), 22. In concrete cases the distinction between the two may be far from evident.Google Scholar

⁶² Id., 17.Google Scholar

⁶³ Cf. Driesen, David, What is Free Trade? The Real Issue Lurking Behind the Trade and Environment Debate, 41 Virginia Journal of International Law 279, 306 (2001).Google Scholar

⁶⁴ Panel Report, United States - Import Prohibition of Certain Shrimp and Shrimp Products, WB/DS58/R, 15 May 1998, para. 7.53.Google Scholar

⁶⁵ Id., paras 7.44 & 7.60.Google Scholar

⁶⁶ Id., paras 7.31-7.62.Google Scholar

⁶⁷ Appellate Body Report, United States - Import Prohibition of Certain Shrimp and Shrimp Products, WB/DS58/AB/R, 12 October 1998.Google Scholar

⁶⁸ Id., para. 114.Google Scholar

⁶⁹ Id., paras 116, 117 & 121.Google Scholar

⁷⁰ It is interesting to note how the Appellate Body supported its reasoning that sea turtles are an exhaustible natural resources with reference to the Preamble of WTO Agreement, by pointing towards developments in international law pertaining to the protection of the environmental, and by stating that “the generic term ‘natural resources’ in Art. XX(g) is not ‘static’ in its content or reference but is rather ‘by definition, evolutionary'”. Id., paras 129-130; quoting Legal Consequences for States of the Continuing Presence of South Africa in Namibia (South West Africa) notwithstanding Security Council Resolution 276 (1970), Advisory Opinion, 21 June 1971, (1971) ICJ Reports 16, 31.Google Scholar

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⁷² Id., paras 152-154 (citing ample evidence from the Uruguay negotiations in support). Cf. Robert Howse, The Appellate Body Rulings in the Shrimp/Turtle Case. A New Legal Baseline for the Trade and Environment Debate, 27 Columbia Journal of Environmental Law 491 (2002).Google Scholar

⁷³ Appellate Body Report, US - Shrimp (note 67), paras 161-176.Google Scholar

⁷⁴ Id., paras 177-184.Google Scholar

⁷⁵ Id., para. 121.Google Scholar

⁷⁶ Id., para. 133.Google Scholar

⁷⁷ Appellate Body Report, United States - Import Prohibition of Certain Shrimp and Shrimp Products (Article 21.5), WB/DS58/AB/R, 22 October 2001, para. 138.Google Scholar

⁷⁸ Trebilcock & Howse (note 26), 532.Google Scholar

⁷⁹ Appellate Body Report, European Communities - Measures Affecting Asbestos and Products Containing Asbestos, WT/DS135/AB/R, 12 March 2001.Google Scholar

⁸⁰ José E. Alvarez, International Organizations as Law-Makers 472 (2005).Google Scholar

⁸¹ Appellate Body Report, US - Gasoline (note 30), 22; Appellate Body Report, US - Shrimp (note 67), para. 151.Google Scholar

⁸² Appellate Body Report, US - Shrimp (note 67), para. 158.Google Scholar

⁸³ Id., para. 159.Google Scholar

⁸⁴ For suggestions that proportionality analysis would now already be required in the application of Art. XX, see, e.g., Meinhard Hilf, Power, Rules and Principles - Which Orientation for WTO/GATT Law?, 4 Journal of International Economic Law 111, 121 (2001); Trachtman (note 1).Google Scholar

⁸⁵ Kumm, Matthias, Constitutional Rights as Principles: On the Structure and Domain of Constitutional Justice, 2 International Journal of Constitutional Law 574 (2004) (suggesting to think of proportionality as an analytical structure for striking such balance); cf. Thomas Kleinlein, Judicial Lawmaking by Judicial Restraint? The Potential of Balancing in International Economic Law, in this issue.Google Scholar

⁸⁶ Grabitz, Eberhardt, Der Grundsatz der Verhältnismäßigkeit in der Rechtsprechung des Bundesverfassungsgerichts, 98 Archiv des öffentlichen Rechts 568 (1973) (on the formative years of the jurisprudence of the German Federal Constitutional Court); Bernhard Schlink, Der Grundsatz der Verhältnismäßigkeit, in: Festschrift 50 Jahre Bundesverfassungsgericht, 445 (Peter Badura & Horst Dreier ed., 2001).Google Scholar

⁸⁷ Appellate Body Report, United States - Transitional Safeguard Measure on Combed Cotton Yarn from Pakistan, WT/DS192/AB/R, 8 October 2001, paras 120 & 122. See also Appellate Body Report, United States - Definitive Safeguard Measures on Imports of Circular Welded Carbon Quality Line Pipe from Korea, WT/DS202/AB/R, 15 February 2002, paras 257-259. Cf. Andrew D. Mitchell, Proportionality and Remedies in WTO Disputes, 17 EJIL 985 (2006); Sebastian, Thomas, World Trade Organization Remedies and the Assessment of Proportionality: Equivalence and Appropriateness, 48 Harvard International Law Journal 337 (2007).Google Scholar

⁸⁸ See Desmedt, Axel, Proportionality in WTO Law, 4 Journal of International Economic Law 441 (2001) (offering an overview and comparison of the fields of trade law where proportionality has or might become relevant).Google Scholar

⁸⁹ Martineau, Anne-Charlotte, La technique du balancement par l'Organe d'appel de l'OMC (études de la justification dans les discours jurisdiques), 123 Revue du Droit Public 991, 1014 (2007).Google Scholar

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⁹³ Id., para. 164 (italics added).Google Scholar

⁹⁴ Id., para. 166.Google Scholar

⁹⁵ Id., para.176.Google Scholar

⁹⁶ Id., para. 178 (italics added).Google Scholar

⁹⁷ Id., para. 179; referencing Panel Report, Korea - Measures Affecting Imports of Fresh, Chilled and Frozen Beef, WT/DS161 and 169/R, 31 July 2000, para. 675.Google Scholar

⁹⁸ Cf. Ruozzi, Elisa, L'application du principe de proportionnalité en droit de l'Organisation Mondiale du Commerce, in: La Circulation des Concepts Juridiques, 475 (Hélène Ruiz Fabri & Lorenzo Gradoni eds, 2009); Regan, Donald, The Meaning of ‘Necessary’ in GATT Article XX and GATS Article XIV: The Myth of Cost-Benefit Balancing, 6 World Trade Review 347, 347 (2007).Google Scholar

⁹⁹ Appellate Body Report, EC - Asbestos (note 79) paras 113-215 & 129-131.Google Scholar

¹⁰⁰ Id., para. 172 (interestingly, however, it omitted in relation to its earlier findings that the impact on trade was a relevant factor).Google Scholar

¹⁰¹ Cf. Hélène Ruiz Fabri, Drawing a Line of Equilibrium in a Complex World, in: The WTO at Ten: The Contribution of the Dispute Settlement System, 125, 141 (Giorgio Sacerdoti, Alan Yanovich & Jan Bohanes eds, 2006) (suggesting that this may be read as a signal sent by the judges that, once they get the chance, they would decide accordingly).Google Scholar

¹⁰² Appellate Body Report, Brazil - Measures Affecting Imports of Retreaded Tyres, WT/DS332/AB/R, 3 December 2007, para. 137.Google Scholar

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¹⁰⁴ Robert Howse, Adjudicative Legitimacy and Treaty Interpretation in International Trade Law, in: The EU, the WTO and the NAFTA: Towards a Common Law of International Trade?, 35 (Joseph H. H. Weiler ed., 2000) (developing an early argument to this effect).Google Scholar

¹⁰⁵ Dunoff, Jeffrey L., Reconciling International Trade with Preservation of the Global Commons: Can We Prosper and Protect, 49 Washington and Lee Law Review 1407 (1992) (already advocating proportionality in response to the Tuna-Dolphin I report); Meinhard Hilf & Sebastian Puth, The Principle of Proportionality on its Way into WTO/GATT Law, in: European Integration and International Co-ordination, 199 (Armin von Bogdandy, Petros C. Mavroidis & Yves Mény eds, 2002) (making out the advent of proportionality in the US - Gasoline and US - Shrimp reports); Ruozzi (note 98), 480-484; Mads Andenas & Stefan Zleptnig, Proportionality: WTO Law in Comparative Perspective, 42 Texas International Law Journal 371, 414 (2007) (suggesting that “the AB focuses on the balancing of competing rights, interests, and obligations as a pre-dominant feature within chapeau analysis”).Google Scholar

¹⁰⁶ Trachtman (note 1), 362.Google Scholar

¹⁰⁷ Eeckhout, Piet, The Scales of Trade - Reflections on the Growth and Functions of the WTO Adjudicative Branch, 13 Journal of International Economic Law 3, 18 (2010).Google Scholar

¹⁰⁸ Usually such emphasis comes with significant caveats, see Martineau (note 89), 1022-1030; Kleinlein (note 85).Google Scholar

¹⁰⁹ Cass, Deborah Z., The Constitutionalization of the World Trade Organization 34 (2005); Petersmann, Ernst-Ulrich, From ‘Member-Driven Governance’ to Constitutionally Limited ‘Multi-Level Governance', in: The WTO at Ten: The Contribution of the Dispute Settlement System, 86, 99 (Giorgio Sacerdoti, Alan Yanovich & Jan Bohanes eds, 2006).Google Scholar

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¹¹² Neumann, Jan & Türk, Elisabeth, Necessity Revisited: Proportionality in World Trade Organization Law after Korea - Beef, EC - Asbestos and EC - Sardines, 37 Journal of World Trade 199 (2003); Desmedt (note 88), 475-476.Google Scholar

¹¹³ Appellate Body Report, Korea - Beef (note 90), para. 162.Google Scholar

¹¹⁴ Dispute Settlement Body, Minutes of the Meeting held on 6 November 1998, WT/DSB/M/50, 12 (the meeting concerned the adoption of the Appellate Body Report in US - Shrimp).Google Scholar

¹¹⁵ Cf. Abi-Saab (note 90), 455 (suggesting that members readily exercise their right to express their views on reports).Google Scholar

¹¹⁶ Appellate Body Report, Japan - Alcoholic Beverages II (note 51); Appellate Body Report, EC - Asbestos (note 79).Google Scholar

¹¹⁷ That a fully-fledged proportionality analysis would encroach upon member state autonomy is well acknowledged also by those who argue in its favor, see, e.g., Eeckhout (note 107).Google Scholar

¹¹⁸ Cf. Trebilcock & Howse (note 26), 543-544 (arguing that Korea - Beef did not introduce any additional requirement of proportionality into the adjudicators’ assessment but rather opened up more leeway on part of member state regulation and reversed the restrictive trend that took off with Thai Cigarettes).Google Scholar

¹¹⁹ See Appellate Body Report, Japan - Alcoholic Beverages II (note 51), 15; Appellate Body Report, US - Stainless Steel (Mexico) (note 54), para. 162.Google Scholar

¹²⁰ Bogdandy, Armin von & Venzke, Ingo, Zur Herrschaft internationaler Gerichte: Eine Untersuchung internationaler öffentlicher Gewalt und ihrer demokratischen Rechtfertigung, 70 Zeitschrift für ausländisches öffentliches Recht und Völkerrecht 1, 14 (2010).Google Scholar

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¹²² This thought is further pursued by Michael Ioannidis, A Procedural Approach to the Legitimacy of International Adjudication: Developing Standards of Participation in WTO Law, in this issue. Cf. Richard B. Stewart & Michelle Ratton Sanchez Badin, The World Trade Organization and Global Administrative Law, IILJ Working Paper 2009/7.Google Scholar

¹²³ Feichtner, Isabel, The Waiver Power of the WTO: Opening the WTO for Political Debate on the Reconciliation of Public Interests, 20 EJIL 615 (2009).Google Scholar

¹²⁴ See Kleinlein (note 85).Google Scholar

¹²⁵ This has of course been done to a considerable extent; yet there remain large areas not only of disagreement but also of uncertainty and lack of empirical as well as conceptual clarification.Google Scholar